G. Research on Related Topics

The legislative mandate for this report requires inclusion of information about relevant research on the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program by the Social Security Administration (SSA) and others. Section 1 of this appendix describes SSA’s major ongoing projects. Section 2 presents a bibliography of studies regarding SSI payment levels, recipients, and reform proposals published in the past 10 years by both public and private entities. See previous editions for information on prior SSI-related research available at https://www.ssa.gov/oact/ssir/index.html.

The Retirement and Disability Research Consortium (RDRC) is an interdisciplinary extramural research program funded by SSA through five-year cooperative agreements with research centers at Boston College, the University of Michigan, the National Bureau of Economic Research, and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The centers organize experts from around the country to produce research on Social Security programs and related topics.

One goal of the RDRC is to research and evaluate topics related to SSI and other Federal disability policies. RDRC working papers funded in FY2020 include the following: Deshpande (2020) analyzes how SSI participation by children affects their earnings as adults. Maestas, Layton, and Shepard (ongoing) examine whether healthcare outcomes would be different for SSI beneficiaries if they were enrolled in Medicare instead of Medicaid. Hembre and Urban (2020) collect data on local housing assistance policies—including whether they prioritize households facing disabilities—and examine the effects of these policies on SSI applications and participation. Hamman (2020) explores the shift toward community-based living (and away from nursing homes) since the 1980s, and the impact this shift has had on the SSI and the Medicaid long-term care programs. Hyde, Schwabish, and O'Leary (forthcoming) document the local-area predictors of flows onto the Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) and SSI programs and flows out of these programs due to work in order to understand the drivers of benefit application, benefit receipt prevalence, and beneficiary employment milestones.

RDRC research funded in previous fiscal years includes the following: Dizon-Ross and Deshpande (ongoing) explore the effects of beliefs about the likelihood of SSI removal at age 18 on human capital investment. Cutler and Meara (2019) examine the disparity in pain and SSDI/SSI benefit receipt by levels of educational attainment. Hembre and Urban (2019) look for evidence of households switching from the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program to SSI. Kurban (2019) examines the impact of payday loans on the financial well-being of SSDI/SSI beneficiaries. Hamman et al. (2019) examine the incentives for home- and community-based care under the Affordable Care Act (ACA) and its implications for SSI. O'Brien (2019) explores the geographic variation in labor force participation, self-reported disability status, and demand for SSDI/SSI. Hastings (2019) uses administrative records from Rhode Island to examine the impact of benefit receipt on the financial security of SSI beneficiaries. Armour and Zaber (2019) explore whether student loan forgiveness through the Department of Education's Total and Permanent Disability Discharge (TPDD) mechanism increases applications for DI and SSI. Layton et al. (2018) assess the effects of Medicaid policy on healthcare utilization and health outcomes of individuals eligible for SSI. Goodman-Bacon and Schmidt (2020) estimate the effect of the introduction of SSI on participation in state-level transfer programs.

SSA researchers have conducted a number of studies that provide a better understanding of the SSI program, the elderly and disabled target populations, program interactions, and the role of the SSI program in the United States social safety net. Nicholas (2013) as well as Koenig and Rupp (2003/2004) estimate the prevalence, characteristics, and poverty status of SSI recipients living with others on SSI (who are not an eligible spouse) in the context of their individual, family, and household units. Rupp (2012) analyzes factors affecting initial disability allowance rates for the SSDI and SSI programs and finds that demographic and diagnostic characteristics of applicants and the local unemployment rate substantially affect the initial allowance rate. Bailey and Hemmeter (2014, 2015) used the 2008 SIPP matched to SSA administrative records to examine the characteristics of SSDI and SSI program participants. Another study uses our administrative records from August 2005 through August 2007 to analyze SSI recipients who lived in counties and parishes affected by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita (Davies and Hemmeter 2010).

Another series of research studies examine the subsequent participation in the SSDI and SSI programs by individuals whose eligibility for those programs ceased through a continuing disability review because of medical improvements (Hemmeter and Stegman 2013; Hemmeter and Bailey 2015). Hemmeter (2012) looks at changes in diagnostic codes following the age-18 redetermination.

Several studies focus on the long-term experiences of children and youth receiving SSI. Rupp, Hemmeter, and Davies (2015) looked at SSI children by year and age at award and analyzed transitions (e.g., onto SSDI, off SSDI and SSI, mortality) as they age into adulthood. Hemmeter et al. (2021) explore the longitudinal patterns of SSDI and SSI participation and mortality of child SSI awardees. Hemmeter et al. (2015) compare the outcomes of participants in the Marriott Foundation for People with Disabilities Bridges from School to Work program with non-participating SSI recipients. Hemmeter (2015) looks at the entry of youth onto the SSI program at age 18. Hemmeter, Mann, and Wittenburg (2017) look at state variation in post-age-18 redetermination outcomes.

Several studies have focused on the participation and outcomes of specific diagnostic or eligibility groups. Hemmeter and Davies (2019) document the mortality of infant SSI applicants. Guldi et al. (2018) look at the relationship between low birthweight, SSI, and childhood outcomes. Woodford Martin (2019) compares the SSI take up rates of low birthweight infants in two states. Anderson et al. (2020) compare trends in SSI awards to adults with autism.

Using data from the Current Population Survey matched to our administrative records, Nicholas and Wiseman (2009 and 2010) assess the impact of using administrative records on poverty estimation among elderly SSI recipients using the official and alternative definitions of poverty. Wiseman and Ycas (2008) compares the Canadian social assistance program for the elderly with the SSI program, looking at program structure, cost, and consequences for elderly poverty rates. Kemp (2010) conducts a descriptive analysis of the SSI student earned income exclusion. Parent, Sayman, and Kulzer (2012) provide a comprehensive profile of the characteristics of disability beneficiaries with a connection to workers' compensation or public disability benefits. Parent, Sayman, and Kulzer (2012) found that 8.3 percent of disabled workers who have this connection tend to be economically better off, more frequently middle-aged, male, afflicted with a musculoskeletal and connective tissue disorder, and tend to wait longer to apply for SSDI benefits after onset than the general disabled-worker population.

Several studies highlight interactions between the SSI program and other Federal and State programs. Dushi and Rupp (2013) uses longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study to assess the role of SSI and related social safety net programs in providing a buffer against the potentially adverse effects of disability shocks in the near-elderly population on financial well-being. Coe and Rupp (2013) analyzes whether disability benefit recipients (SSDI and SSI) in States with easier access to health insurance will be more likely to work and exit from SSDI or SSI than their peers in States where health insurance is more difficult to access. Strand (2010) uses matched SIPP records to examine potential eligibility for three major means-tested programs (SSI, Medicaid, and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)) among near retirees aged 55-64 and eventual SSI participation upon reaching age 65. A series of studies by Rupp and Riley rely on a linkage of individual-level administrative data from SSA and the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. First, Rupp and Riley (2011) analyzes longitudinal patterns of interaction between SSDI and SSI and finds that one quarter of the year 2000 cohort of first-ever, working-age disability awardees received benefits from both programs over a 60-month period. A second paper (Rupp and Riley 2012) finds that SSI facilitates high levels of Medicaid coverage for SSI awardees overall and provides access to Medicaid for many SSDI awardees during the 24-month Medicare waiting period. A third paper (Riley and Rupp, 2014b) tracks expenditures for 2000-2006 for the SSDI, SSI, Medicare, and Medicaid programs and finds that SSI is a relatively low-expenditure program with important implications for the other three programs. A fourth paper (Riley & Rupp 2014a) focuses on estimated cumulative expenditure patterns over the working-age adult portion of the life cycle for the year 2000 awardees for SSDI, SSI, Medicare, and Medicaid. Finally, Rupp and Riley (2016) focuses on the effect of State variations in Medicaid enrollment policies for SSI recipients on Medicaid coverage and expenditures. Meijer, Karoly, and Michaud (2009, 2010) analyzes eligibility for the Medicare Part D Low Income Subsidy, which relies on a simplified SSI methodology. Martin, Honeycutt, and Hemmeter (2020) document the earnings and SSA benefit outcomes after vocational rehabilitation applications of youth.

Additional studies have utilized data available from SSA's Disability Analysis File (DAF) and National Beneficiary Survey (NBS). The DAF is an annual research file that brings together the agency's disparate administrative data resources for child and working-age adult beneficiaries who have received disability cash benefits from the SSI; Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI); or both programs since 1996. In 2020, we published a new chartbook based on DAF data titled, “DI & SSI Program Participants: Characteristics & Employment, 2015” (https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/chartbooks/di-ssi-employment/2015/index.html). This chartbook examines the work activity of working-age adult Social Security Disability Insurance (DI) beneficiaries and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) recipients before and after disability award. It covers work activity, employment expectations and characteristics, employment services, and factors affecting employment.

In the NBS, we collect information that is not available from our administrative records from a representative sample of SSI and OASDI disability beneficiaries. Key items of interest in the NBS include work attitudes and work-related activities, health and functional status, education, access to health insurance, household composition, and sources of income. We implemented the first four rounds between 2004 and 2010, with a particular focus on the Ticket to Work program. More recent rounds in 2015, 2017, and 2019 have added emphasis on beneficiaries who work, especially those who have experienced employment success to the point of benefit suspension. Work examining the data from the 2017 NBS is ongoing, and we are beginning our analysis of the 2019 data released in 2021. In 2017, we published a compendium of disability statistics from the 2015 NBS, “National Beneficiary Survey: Disability Statistics, 2015” (http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/nbs/index.html). The publication provides descriptive statistics on the health, program and service participation, employment interest and activity, job characteristics, and benefits and employment interaction of SSI recipients and SSDI beneficiaries. We are updating this publication with 2017 data and plan to release a new compendium in 2021.

Other researchers and policy analysts within SSA and at other Federal agencies and academic institutions use the DAF and the NBS for general disability research. Several of the Rupp and Riley papers mentioned above link data from Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services to the DAF. Other research using DAF or NBS data include: the differences in employment outcomes between young participants (ages 18 to 30) with psychiatric disabilities versus young participants with other disabilities (Schimmel, Liu, and Croake 2012); the impact of workplace injuries on receipt of SSDI benefits (O'Leary et al. 2012); work activities and employment outcomes for our beneficiaries with disabilities in seven articles in a special issue of the Social Security Bulletin (volume 71, number 3, 2011); the long-term effects of evidence-based supported employment services on vocational outcomes (Cook, Burke-Miller, and Roessel 2016); an analysis of Rehabilitation Services Administration records matched to DAF data, to examine state vocational rehabilitation (VR) agency provision of services to youth with disabilities and differences in outcomes based on SSA benefit receipt status (Honeycutt, et al. 2016); the employment and benefit receipt outcomes of vocational rehabilitation applicants (Mann et al. 2017); the income effect of SSDI payments on earnings (Gelber, Moore, and Strand 2016); a profile of working-age SSDI and SSI beneficiaries with psychiatric disabilities (Livermore and Bardos 2017); outcomes for transition-age youth with disabilities who applied and were eligible for Vocational Rehabilitation services (Honeycutt, Martin, and Wittenburg 2017); the characteristics associated with return-to-work success (Ben-Shalom and Mamun, 2015); a review of work incentive use by transition age youth (U.S. Government Accountability Office 2017); an assessment of the cost effectiveness of vocational rehabilitation services for SSA disabled beneficiaries (U.S. Social Security Administration 2017); an examination of how social insurance, family support, and work capacity enhance individuals' economic well-being following significant health and income shocks (Rennane 2016); and the effect of the ACA on SSI disability applications (Schimmel Hyde et al. 2017): an examination of the relationship between receiving support for postsecondary education (college or vocational training) from state VR agencies and long-term outcomes for youth with mental health conditions (Anand and Honeycutt, 2020); a follow-up assessment of the long-term impact of the Mental Health Treatment Study (Baller, et al. 2020).

The Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999 (the Ticket Act) required the Commissioner of Social Security to provide independent evaluations to assess the effectiveness of the Ticket to Work program. We conducted all Ticket to Work evaluation reports through an independent evaluation contractor, Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. Our contractor completed the evaluation of the Ticket to Work program in 2013. There are seven Ticket to Work evaluation reports in all, and all reports are available on SSA’s website at www.ssa.gov/disabilityresearch/twe_reports.htm.

Overall, the Ticket to Work evaluation found that beneficiaries who use Ticket to Work (TTW) generally like the program, that the program has increased use of return-to-work services, and those who participate in Ticket to Work have better outcomes than those who return to work without the help of SSA-financed employment services. However, we also found that the increase in service use and better outcomes by participants had not translated into measurable net increases in benefit suspension or termination for work or a measurable increase in the number of months spent in suspension or termination for work. This suggests that Ticket to Work has primarily extended the types of services that were available under the program that preceded Ticket to Work, where services were offered only though State vocational rehabilitation agencies, and has achieved the same level of success as before Ticket to Work. More beneficiaries are getting these services under TTW, but the success rate has not measurably changed.

We are extending our evaluation of the TTW program in several ways. In 2018, we completed a study to determine the administrative cost of TTW by examining the cost of SSA staffing and contract resources for the TTW program. We conducted a workload assessment to determine the number and grade level of staff working on TTW and to allocate the time of each staff member between TTW specific activities. We then developed fully loaded salaries for each staff position to estimate the actual costs of administrative workloads for TTW and then combined those costs with TTW contracting costs (O'Leary and Roessel, 2018).

We are currently conducting a study assessing the return on investment for the TTW program. This analysis provides a summary of prior findings relative to TTW goals and adds new graphical and regression analyses of TTW outcomes and impacts vs. costs. More specifically, this analysis compares TTW findings to goals as described in the TTW legislation, clarifies the findings from the 2013 evaluation regarding the net impact of the TTW program, provides the cost and outcome information requested by those with TTW oversight, and then refines this simple outcome analysis by using the regression techniques with selection bias adjustments.

We are working on a second study that uses the cessation of TTW mailings at award as a discontinuity analysis to provide unbiased estimates of TTW program impacts. This study takes advantage of the abrupt discontinuance of TTW mailings that occurred in June of 2011. This change in policy in 2011 represents a natural experiment along the awardee timeline that we will evaluate to assess the effect of the mailing as well as the subsequent effect of TTW participation. This approach is close to a randomized trial and so offers the potential to determine more accurate TTW impacts than were available to earlier evaluators. We expect to complete the study in the fall of 2021.

In a third study, we are examining work aptitude of SSA beneficiaries as a means of understanding the possible reasons why TTW did not have the significant impact on exits from SSA disability benefits that many had hoped for. The TTW evaluator found that SSA effectively implemented TTW and the program was and is reasonably well received by beneficiaries. TTW also removed several barriers thought to limit work effort, by extending access to healthcare after cash benefits ceased, protecting beneficiaries from continuing disability reviews while participating in TTW, and making it easier for beneficiaries to return to benefits if a work attempt failed. This analysis examines the extent to which the number of beneficiaries capable of benefiting from return-to-work services may have limited the success of TTW rather than the design of the program and how SSA implemented it.

We are also collaborating with researchers from the General Services Administration to test new Ticket mailings that notify beneficiaries of their eligibility to participate in the TTW program. We mail TTW notices to beneficiaries approximately 2 months after award and at the 12-month and 36-month anniversary dates post-award. The TTW Notice Optimization project seeks to increase participation in the TTW program by developing an evidence-based approach to targeting outreach to eligible beneficiaries. The project will test changes to Ticket notices including the types of notices we send, the language we use, and the timing of our notices. We completed our analysis plan and began sending out the experimental mailings in the fall of 2020 (GSA, 2020). We expect to produce a draft evaluation report in late FY 2022.

The Youth Transition Demonstration (YTD) established partnerships to improve employment outcomes for youths age 14-25 who receive (or could receive) SSI or OASDI payments based on their own disability. The YTD projects included service delivery systems and a broad array of services and supports to assist youth with disabilities in their transition from school to employment and to help them gain economic self-sufficiency.

YTD began in 2003, with seven projects in six States. In 2007, we piloted new projects in five States, choosing three new projects in Florida, Maryland, and West Virginia. These three projects joined three (Colorado; Bronx County, New York; and Erie County, New York) of the original seven projects in a random assignment study. This study will produce the first evaluation of the empirical evidence of the effects of youth transition programs and modified SSI work incentives.

The modified SSI program rules that we tested under the YTD included five program waivers.

The YTD projects in Colorado and New York ended in 2010. The Florida, Maryland, and West Virginia projects ended in 2012. We have released the 12-month, post-random-assignment reports for all the sites to the public. We published a 24-month, post-random-assignment report covering all the sites in the February 2014 edition of the Social Security Bulletin (Hemmeter 2014). We posted the comprehensive final report of the six random assignment projects to our website in November 2014. This demonstration produced mixed evidence on whether YTD impacts on paid employment is sustainable. Camacho and Hemmeter (2013) summarize the findings from two earlier YTD projects.

Two of the six projects showed an increase in employment three years after random assignment. Florida and Bronx, New York showed positive impacts on paid employment during the year after participants entered the evaluation. In Florida, 23 percent of participants in the program group worked for pay during that year, compared with just 13 percent of control group members. Because several youths took advantage of the modified program rules (listed in bullets above), participants of five of the six projects had higher total income from earnings and disability benefits in the third year after random assignment. These impacts ranged from $1,010 higher total income in West Virginia to $1,729 higher in Bronx, New York. The YTD showed that substantial doses of well-designed service to youth with disabilities can improve key transition outcomes in the medium term.

In 2018, three follow up analyses were completed and published. One paper summarized the effects of the YTD interventions three years after random assignment (Fraker et al. 2018). The second paper examined implementation and outcomes in one specific site, the West Virginia Youth Works site (Cobb, Wittenburg, and Stepanczuk 2018). This examination provides a potential case study for other states interested in expanding services to youths with disabilities. The effects at this site were large relative to those of previous SSA demonstrations. Mamun et al. (2018) used YTD data to show that early work experience increases the probability of being employed two years later. We will follow participants using administrative data and conduct cost-benefit analyses at specified periods to test the longer-term outcomes of these projects.

Our findings from YTD influenced the development of the Promoting Readiness of Minors in SSI (PROMISE) project, a joint initiative of SSA and the Departments of Education, Health and Human Services, and Labor that funds model demonstration projects in several States to promote positive outcomes for children with disabilities who receive SSI and their families (described in section g).

To determine whether adult disability applicants qualify for benefits, our adjudicators follow a sequential five-step evaluation process. At steps four and five, where we decide many of our claims, we require information about work in the national economy to determine whether claimants’ impairment-related limitations would prevent them from working. Currently, we base these medical-vocational decisions on the occupational information found in the Department of Labor’s (DOL) Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) and its companion volume, the Selected Characteristics of Occupations. Although DOL did not design the DOT for our use, we incorporated many of its concepts and definitions into our regulations and policy. DOL stopped updating the DOT in 1991 and later replaced it with the Occupational Information Network (O*NET), a system that was developed as a career exploration tool. Because O*NET does not measure strength and physical requirements in the way that the DOT does and that SSA disability rules require, it is not practical as a replacement for the DOT in SSA’s disability adjudication process. We could not identify any other existing Occupational Information System (OIS) that would meet our unique needs.

In July 2012, we signed an Interagency Agreement with the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) to test the feasibility of using the National Compensation Survey (NCS) platform to collect updated occupational information about the skill level, physical, environmental, and mental and cognitive requirements of work. With input from SSA, BLS ultimately developed the Occupational Requirements Survey (ORS) to collect the updated occupational data that SSA needs. This information, along with specified information from other occupational sources, will provide us with updated data about work for disability adjudication and inform current and future vocational policy.

In FY 2013 and 2014, BLS conducted feasibility testing and worked with us to improve the survey tools and testing protocols. In FY 2015, we began developing the web-based IT platform, the Vocational Information Tool (VIT), to house and allow adjudicators access to the occupational data. BLS also conducted a nationwide pre-production test, and, at the end of the fiscal year, began production data collection using the ORS. In FY 2016, BLS completed the first year of ORS data collection and continued testing to resolve any issues raised by earlier data collection. In May 2016, BLS began the second year of collection.

In FY 2017, BLS completed the second year of data collection. BLS released the first-year ORS estimates in December 2016 and the combined first- and second-year estimates in November 2017. In FY 2018, BLS completed the initial three-year data collection wave, which they published in February 2019. Based on a BLS occupational data shelf-life study, SSA decided to update the occupational data every five years after the initial three-year collection wave. In FY 2019, BLS completed the first year of the first five-year wave update. As part of the update, BLS is using a new sample design that better captures information across occupations. SSA continued to analyze the published ORS estimates and began analyzing BLS microdata extensively. Microdata are unit-level data from each respondent to the ORS before the data is aggregated, summarized, and published as occupational estimates. SSA is using the analysis—as well as research on the residual functional capacity (RFC)—to update its disability policy. RFC describes the most an individual is able to do, despite functional limitations resulting from a medically determinable impairment(s) and impairment-related symptoms. It is an administrative determination of an individual’s capacity to perform work-related physical and mental activities.

In FY 2020, BLS completed the second year and published estimates from the first year of the five-year wave update. SSA and BLS discussed and determined joint program development activities to ensure that the ORS estimates published by BLS meet SSA’s needs. At the end of FY 2020, BLS began data collection for the third year of the five-year wave update. SSA activities related to VIT development included developing functionality that will facilitate matching claimant limitations to ORS requirements to assist adjudicators in determining whether work exists in the national economy in significant numbers that an individual can perform.

In FY 2021, BLS completed the third year and began the fourth year of data collection. In December 2020, BLS published ORS estimates for the combined first and second-year data collection samples. VIT development work included upgrading the system's architecture to comply with SSA’s new user experience framework and conducting detailed user experience testing.

In FY 2022, BLS will complete data collection for the fourth year and begin collecting the fifth and last year of the five-year wave update. BLS will publish estimates for the combined first, second, and third year ORS data collection samples.

The goal of the Homeless with Schizophrenia Presumptive Disability (HSPD) Pilot Demonstration is to improve the economic well-being of adult SSI applicants who are both homeless and diagnosed with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. We partnered with clinicians and case managers in California from the Health Services Agencies of San Francisco and Santa Cruz counties, the Department of Public Health of the City of San Francisco, and the Department of Mental Health of Los Angeles County, who are actively assisting their clients to navigate the SSI application process and have established relationships with patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder who are also homeless. There were two main features of the project: (1) the SSI application assistance; and (2) the use of presumptive disability (PD). The clinicians and case managers assisted these individuals with gathering supporting medical evidence, coordinating medical appointments, and submitting the SSI application. Along with the SSI application, a Presumptive Disability Recommendation Form, created for this pilot demonstration, was also submitted. Clinicians from the community agencies certified that the applicant met the SSA criteria for a diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. To provide economic relief to the applicant while we processed the application, we awarded up to 6 months of SSI payments to the applicant based on PD. Applicants were not required to pay back these payments if we ultimately denied their applications, as long as we did not deny the applications for non-medical reasons; therefore, there must be a high degree of probability that the applicant was disabled when we conferred PD SSI payments. Our field offices generally make PD findings only for specific disability categories, which do not include schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder.

Project implementation began in April 2012, with a goal of recruiting at least 200 participants. We met this enrollment goal and completed the implementation phase in April 2014. The community partners identified 260 individuals to assist through the SSI application process. Among the 238 we are using for our evaluation, we approved 223 of these applicants, denied 14, and 1 had no decision.

In our evaluation (Bailey, Engler, and Hemmeter 2016), we examined whether the program improves the administration of the SSI application and determination process. The evaluation is based on a quasi-experimental design, in which we compared outcomes for applicants who receive assistance and PD payments with applicants from a previous period and applicants in surrounding areas. Within this framework, we examined differences in initial allowance rates, appeals, failure-to-cooperate denials, processing times, total payments, exits from SSI, mortality, and the need for consultative exams. Relative to the comparison groups chosen in the surrounding geographic areas, in an earlier period, and in the same locations, we found that the pilot led to higher allowance rates at the initial adjudicative level, fewer requests for consultative examinations, and reduced time to award.

Promoting Readiness of Minors in SSI (PROMISE) is a joint project between SSA and the Departments of Education (ED), Labor, and Health and Human Services. The goals of the project are to improve the provision and coordination of services and supports for children with disabilities who receive SSI and their families in order to achieve improved education and employment outcomes. The targeted outcomes include completing postsecondary education and job training to obtain competitive employment in an integrated setting that may result in long-term reductions in the child recipient’s reliance on SSI. In 2013, ED funded model demonstration projects in five individual States (Arkansas, California, Maryland, New York, and Wisconsin) and one consortium of States (Arizona, Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Utah, collectively referred to as Achieving Success by Promoting Readiness for Education and Employment, or ASPIRE) for 5 years. SSA is responsible for evaluating PROMISE.

Each PROMISE project enrolled at least 2,000 youths ages 14-16. The projects provide youths randomly assigned into the treatment group services including: case management; benefits counseling; career and work-based learnings experiences; and parent/guardian training and information. Youths randomly assigned to a control group receive the services usually available in their communities.

The PROMISE evaluation includes process, impact, and cost-benefit analyses. Enrollment began in April 2014 and ended in April 2016. All projects stopped providing services by September 2019. Project-specific process analyses (Anderson et al. 2018; Honeycutt, Gionfriddo, Kauff et al. 2018; Kauff et al. 2018; Matulewicz et al. 2018; McCutcheon et al. 2018; Selekman et al. 2018) and three special topic reports (Honeycutt, Gionfriddo, and Livermore 2018; Honeycutt and Livermore 2018; Levere et al. 2020) describe how the projects were implemented, how PROMISE compares with and uses other transition policies and practices, and how families’ service use is related to early youth outcomes. An interim impact and services report was released in 2019 (Mamun et al. 2019). Livermore et al. (2020) summarize the lessons learned from these reports. The final evaluation report (on the longer-term impacts and cost-benefit analyses) will be available in 2022.

The individual projects are also producing research on the projects. A special edition of the Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation included a number of project-specific articles produced by the projects. Schlegelmilch et al. (2019) describe the relationship between work incentive benefits counseling and work in Wisconsin. Golden et al. (2019) describe the community of practice model used in New York State. Hartman et al. (2019) look at employment rates in Wisconsin. Ipsen et al. (2019) look at engagement in services at ASPIRE. Crane et al. (2019) describe the engagement strategies used in Maryland. Williams et al. (2019) look at the predictors of work activities in Arkansas. Luecking et al. (2019) report on lessons about intervention fidelity from Maryland. Enayati and Shaw (2019) estimate bounds on the return on investment for PROMISE projects. Tucker et al. (2019) describe the parent and guardian interventions implemented in California. Saleh et al. (2019) describe the characteristics of effective partnerships in New York State. Chambless et al. (2019) report on the implementation of self-determination training in ASPIRE. Gold et al. (2019) discuss general strategies for recruiting participants across the projects. Anderson, Schlegelmilch, and Hartman (2019) illustrate a cost-benefit analysis in Wisconsin. Anderson and Golden (2019) provide an overview of the special edition.

Additional research on PROMISE has been conducted by the federal partners and projects. Emenheiser et al. (2020) provide an overview of the project. Schlegelmilch et al. (2020) provide a qualitative analysis of several case studies in Wisconsin. Livermore et al. (2020) describe how PROMISE can provide insights to the transition system.

The Supported Employment Demonstration (SED) evaluates whether offering evidence-based packages of integrated vocational, medical, and mental health services to recently denied disability applicants promotes employment, self-sufficiency, and improved mental health and quality of life. The project focuses on individuals aged 18 to 50 who express a desire to work and who have recently been denied disability benefits (SSDI or SSI) while alleging a mental illness.

With the cooperation of 30 community health centers across the country, SED enrolled and randomly assigned 3,000 participants into one of three groups: 1) The Full-Service Treatment Group; 2) The Basic-Service Treatment Group; or 3) The Control Group (usual services). Participants assigned to the Full-Treatment Group receive Individual Placement and Support (IPS) services, a nurse care coordinator, systematic medication management, and assistance with cost sharing for medications and behavioral health and work-related expenses. Participants assigned to the Basic-Service Treatment Group also receive the IPS services and assistance with behavioral health and work-related expenses, but do not receive the services of a nurse care coordinator providing medication management support. Participants assigned to the control group have access to all standard behavioral health or employment-related services available at the community health center and receive a local community resources information book.

The SED project will run from August 2016 to December 2022. Recruitment and participant enrollment began in early FY 2018. Participants receive 36 months of intervention services after entry. Field operations will end in FY 2022 and include technical assistance, training, and data collection activities for process and outcome evaluations. The final evaluation reports will be available in FY 2023.

SSA has partnered with the Office of Evaluation Science (OES) at the General Services Administration and its predecessor in the White House’s Social and Behavioral Science Team (SBST) to test “nudge”-style behaviorally-informed notices. In 2015, SSA partnered with the SBST to test whether a new notice could encourage SSI recipients to report changes to their earnings in a more accurate and timely manner. The researchers found that SSI recipients receiving the letters were 34 percent more likely to have reported earnings for the previous months (OES 2019).

Several research studies indicate that a large number of low-income seniors do not receive SSI even though they are potentially eligible for payments. In FY 2017, SSA, in partnership with the General Services Administration's Office of Evaluation Science, conducted a pilot to identify what specific language, if any, has the greatest effect on SSI participation among potentially-eligible low-benefit OASDI beneficiaries. In September 2017, we sent one of four differently worded notices to randomly selected groups of low-benefit OASDI beneficiaries meeting the inclusion criteria. We used program records on the rates of SSI applications and awards to measure the effect of the notices on SSI applications as compared to a control group, who did not receive a notice (Hemmeter, Safran, and Wilson 2018). We found the letters increased applications by about 5 percentage points (a relative increase of over 1000 percent) and increased awards by about 1.5 percentage points (a relative increase of over 860 percent). We will continue to analyze the data to see if it is possible to better target such information to potential individuals.

As noted in the Ticket to Work Evaluation section, the Ticket to Work Notice Optimization project seeks to increase participation in the Ticket to Work program. Jilke et al. (2020) are testing whether behaviorally informed changes to the notices SSA sends to OASDI beneficiaries and SSI recipients to inform them of the program results in increased Ticket assignments with an Employment Network or vocational rehabilitation agency. SSA began sending the new notices in September 2020 and will continue to send them for 18 months, assessing their impact 9 months after mailing for each individual.

The Promoting Work through Early Interventions Project (PWEIP) is a cooperative venture with SSA and the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) within HHS. The PWEIP identifies, selects, and evaluates programs likely to improve the employment and economic outcomes for individuals who have current or foreseeable disabilities, ties to U.S. safety net programs, little or no work history, and have not yet applied for SSI or SSDI. Evaluations of programs will include impact assessments and implementation research. A select number of evaluations will also include a cost analysis. In FY 2019, we developed a jointly financed cooperative arrangement with ACF and transferred $25 million to support the evaluation of and service provisions for selected intervention programs. PWEIP plans include rigorous evaluations of programs and analyses of outcomes related to employment, earnings, and benefit receipt.

In FY 2020, we worked with ACF to identify and select programs to participate in ACF's Building Evidence on Employment Strategies (BEES) and Next Generation of Enhanced Employment Strategies (NextGen) projects and approved two programs for PWEIP. The Bridges from School to Work program, an employer-driven program, provides job readiness instruction, placement, and post-placement support for young adults with disabilities in eight urban areas (in GA, MD, IL, TX, CA [2 sites], PA, and DC); implementation starts August 2021. The Kentucky Addiction Recovery Care Program is a mature, innovative model for combining recovery services with workforce development in rural Kentucky. It provides treatment, employment services, housing, and other supports to individuals with substance use disorders.

In FY 2021, ACF proposed nine programs to SSA for consideration; we approved eight programs for inclusion. Four programs feature use of the evidence-based Individual Placement and Support (IPS) model of supported employment as the key intervention. The programs (and the states participating) include: IPS for individuals using Federally Qualified Health Center services (IL and NH); for individuals with substance use disorders (OK and OH); for participants receiving TANF and SNAP assistance (WA); and for justice-system involved individuals within 30 days of re-entering communities (IA, TN, OK, SC, and IL). Another approved program, Families Achieving Success Today program (MN), uses an adaptation of an IPS model to help TANF clients with physical or mental health barriers to employment obtain competitive jobs. The other two programs approved in FY 2021 include the Central City Concern (OR) and the Journey program (two OH county Child Support Enforcement Agencies). Central City Concern is a large housing and employment center with an outpatient clinic providing general healthcare and employment, housing, and recovery services for individuals with substance use disorders who enter from a detoxification center. The Journey program's goals are to improve parental engagement with children and adherence of child support court orders, and its tertiary goal is to increase participant employment rates. All programs approved in FY 2021 experienced COVID-19-related delays in implementation and have planned start dates during the summer 2021. We expect to receive evaluation reports from approved programs beginning in FY 2023.

The Analyzing Relationships between Disability, Rehabilitation and Work (ARDRAW) Small Grant Program is a grant program that supports innovative student research on rehabilitation, work, and disability topics by awarding one-year stipends to graduate-level students to conduct supervised independent research in these specific areas. The objective of the program is to generate innovative research with fresh perspectives on disability and to cultivate new scholars in the disability research fields. The five-year grant to manage ARDRAW was awarded to Policy Research, Inc. in September 2016 and is renewable annually. In 2020 Cohort 3, which had 17 projects, completed their research. Also in 2020 Cohort 4, which had 16 projects, began their research. We made 15 Cohort 5 awards in April 2021.

SSA will begin a new program called the Interventional Cooperative Agreement Program (ICAP) in 2021. The ICAP will fund cooperative agreements to collaborate with States, private foundations, and other non-federal groups and organizations who have the interest and ability to identify, operate, and partially fund interventional research. The research and interventions under this program will target the increased employment and self-sufficiency of individuals with disabilities (whether beneficiaries, applicants, or potential applicants of the SSDI or SSI programs); coordinating planning between private and public welfare agencies to improve the administration and effectiveness the SSDI, SSI, and related programs; assisting claimants in vulnerable populations apply for or appeal decisions on claims for SSDI and SSI benefits; and conducting outreach to children with disabilities who are potentially eligible to receive SSI.

The Ohio Direct Referral Demonstration (ODRD) is a joint demonstration with the Ohio State agency, Opportunities for Ohioans with Disabilities (OOD). The goal of ODRD is to test the effectiveness of providing direct referrals to vocational rehabilitation services for 18 and 19 year-olds who are, or may become, SSI or SSDI beneficiaries. Participants in the demonstration include individuals ages 18 and 19 at the time of enrollment, who are either (1) applying for SSDI or SSI or (2) undergoing an age-18 redetermination of SSI eligibility. OOD’s Division of Disability Determination (DDD) and the Bureau of Vocational Rehabilitation (BVR) will share information to conduct ODRD. OOD and SSA will each contribute staff time to the demonstration and SSA will not incur additional costs.

The Ohio DDD began recruitment in January 2020. Once recruitment and enrollment are complete, we expect to continue to conduct the evaluation over two years (calendar years 2022 and 2023), finalizing the necessary analyses, and releasing reports.

In FY 2018, SSA awarded a Blanket Purchase Agreement (BPA) aimed at providing an alternate research channel for policy and program assessments and studies including research on SSI program related topics.

In FY 2020, SSA awarded two studies relevant to the SSI program through the BPA:

We received the final reports on these studies in July 2021.

Aizer, Anna, Nora Gordon, and Melissa Kearney. Exploring the Growth of the Child SSI Caseload in the Context of the Broader Policy and Demographic Landscape. NBER Disability Research Center Working Paper No. NB-13-02, National Bureau of Economic Research, September 2013.

Amdur, Mark A. “Disability Determination Under Social Security: Increasing Rates of Approval.” Community Mental Health Journal 55 (2019): 38–41.

Anand, Priyanka and Yonatan Ben-Shalom. Paths Taken By New Awardees of Federal Disability Benefits. DRC Data Brief No. 2016-06, Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, May 2016.

________. “Pathways Taken by New Social Security Disability Insurance and Supplemental Security Income Awardees.” Journal of Disability Policy Studies (2018): DOI: 10.1177/1044207318779987.

Anand, Priyanka and Todd C. Honeycutt. “Long-Term Outcomes for Transition-Age Youth with Mental Health Conditions Who Receive Postsecondary Education Support.” Journal of Disability Policy Studies (2019): DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207319848069.

Anand, Priyanka, Jody Schimmel Hyde, Maggie Colby, and Paul O'Leary. “The Impact of Affordable Care Act Medicaid Expansions on Applications to Federal Disability Programs.” Forum for Health Economics and Policy 21, 2 (2019): DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/fhep-2018-0001.

Anderson, Catherine A. and Thomas P. Golden. “Improving Post-School Living, Learning and Earning Outcomes of Youth with Disabilities who Receive Supplemental Security Income (SSI): Findings and Recommendations from Six National PROMISE Demonstration Sites.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 51, 2 (2019): 111–113.

Anderson, Catherine A., Amanda Schlegelmilch, and Ellie Hartman. “Wisconsin PROMISE Cost-Benefit Analysis and Sustainability Framework.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 51, 2 (2019): 253–261.

Anderson, Kristy A., Jeffrey Hemmeter, Jessica E. Rast, Anne M. Roux, and Paul T. Shattuck. “Trends in Supplemental Security Income Payments to Adults With Autism.” Psychiatric Services 71, 6 (2020): DOI: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201900265.

Anderson, Mary Anne, Gina Livermore, AnnaMaria McCutcheon, Todd Honeycutt, Karen Katz, Joseph Mastrianni, and Jacqueline Kauff. Promoting Readiness of Minors in Supplemental Security Income (PROMISE): ASPIRE Process Analysis Report. Washington, DC: Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, December 2018.

Anguelov, Chris, Gabriella Ravida, and Robert R. Weathers II. “Adult OASDI Beneficiaries and SSI Recipients Who Need Representative Payees: Projections for 2025 and 2035.” Social Security Bulletin 75, 2 (2015): 1–17.

Armour, Philip and Melanie Zaber. Does Student Loan Forgiveness Drive Disability Application? NBER Working Paper No. 26787, National Bureau of Economic Research, February 2020.

Autor, David, Nicolas Maesta, and Richard Woodbury. 2020. “Disability Policy, Program Enrollment, Work, and Well-Being Among People with Disabilities.” Social Security Bulletin 80, 1 (2020): 57–68.

Bailey, Michelle Stegman, Debra Goetz Engler, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. “Homeless with Schizophrenia Presumptive Disability Pilot Evaluation.” Social Security Bulletin 76, 1 (2016): 1–24.

Bailey, Michelle Stegman and Jeffrey Hemmeter. Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized DI and SSI Program Participants, 2010 Update. Research and Statistics Note No. 2014-02. Washington, DC: Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy, Social Security Administration, February 2014.

________. Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized DI and SSI Program Participants, 2013 Update, Research and Statistics Note No. 2015-02. Washington, DC: Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy, Social Security Administration, September 2015.

Barden, Bret. Assessing and Serving TANF Recipients with Disabilities, OPRE Report 2013-56, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation; Administration for Children and Families; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, December 2013.

Bardos, Maura and Gina A. Livermore. Young Adult SSI and SSDI Beneficiaries. DRC Data Brief No. 2016-01, Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, January 2016.

Barrage, Lint, Ian Chin, Eric Chyn, and Justine Hastings. The Impact of Bill Receipt Timing Among Low-Income and Aged Households: New Evidence from Administrative Electricity Bill Data. NBER Retirement and Disability Research Center Project No. NB19-09, National Bureau of Economic Research, November 2019.

Ben-Shalom, Yonatan and Arif A. Mamun. “Return-to-Work Outcomes Among Social Security Disability Insurance Program Beneficiaries.” Journal of Disability Policy Studies 26, 2 (2015): 100–110.

Ben-Shalom, Yonatan, and David Stapleton. “Long-Term Work Activity and Use of Employment Supports Among New Supplemental Security Income Recipients.” Social Security Bulletin 75, 1 (2015): 73–95.

Ben-Shalom, Yonatan, and David Stapleton. The Work Experiences of New SSI Beneficiaries: A Longitudinal Perspective. Center for Studying Disability Policy Issue Brief Number 12-06. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. November 2012.

Ben-Shalom, Yonatan, David Stapleton, Dawn Phelps, and Maura Bardos. Longitudinal Statistics for New Supplemental Security Income Beneficiaries. Final Report. Report prepared for the Social Security Administration, November 2012.

Berkowitz, Edward D. and Larry DeWitt. 2013. The Other Welfare: Supplemental Security Income and U.S. Social Policy. New York, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013.

Berry, Hugh G., Michael Ward, and Leslie Caplan. “Self-Determination and Access to Postsecondary Education in Transitioning Youths Receiving Supplemental Security Income Benefits.” Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 35, 2 (2012): 68–75.

Block, Stephen R., Steven A. Rosenberg, Yvonne Kellar-Guenther, Cordelia C. Robinson, and Linda Goetze. “Child and Parent Characteristics Affecting the Authorization and Expenditure of Funds for Early Intervention Services.” Journal of Disability Policy Studies 26, 1 (2015): 3–11.

Blue, Laura, Lakhpreet Gill, Jessica Faul, Kevin Bradway, and David Stapleton. “Predicting Receipt of Social Security Administration Disability Benefits Using Biomarkers and Other Physiological Measures: Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study.” Journal of Aging and Health (2017): DOI: 10.1177/0898264317737893.

Blyler, Crystal, Denise Hoffman, and Gina Livermore. Ticket to Work Participants: Then and Now. Center for Studying Disability Policy Issue Brief Number 13-02. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. May 2013.

Brandt, Diane, C. McDonough, and L. Chan. “Assessing Work Disability in the US Social Security Administration (SSA) Disability Programs: Novel Methods to Assess Function.” European Journal of Public Health 26, suppl_1 (2016): DOI: 10.1093/eurpub/ckw168.081.

Burkhauser, Richard V. and Mary C. Daly. The Changing Role of Disabled Children Benefits. Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Economic Letter 2013-25, September 3, 2013.

Camacho, Christa Bucks, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. “Linking Youth Transition Support Services: Results from Two Demonstration Projects.” Social Security Bulletin 73, 1 (2013): 59–71.

Chambless, Catherine E., Sara McCormick, Catherine Ipsen, Noelle Kurth, and Jean Hall. “Teaching Self-Determination to Youth with Disabilities: The ASPIRE Model.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 51, 2 (2019): 199–210.

Chan, Fong and John Kregel. Supported Employment for People with Intellectual Disabilities, Autism Spectrum Disorders, and Schizophrenia: A Propensity Matched Comparison of Vocational Rehabilitation Outcomes. DRC Working Paper No. 2019-07, Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, March 2019.

Chow, Clifton M., Bevin Croft, and Benjamin Cichocki. “Evaluating the Potential Cost-Savings of Job Accommodations Among Individuals with Psychiatric Disability.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 43, 1 (2015): 67–74.

Clarcq, Jack R. and Gerard G. Walter. “Supplemental Security Income Payments Made to Young Adults Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing.” JADARA 31, 2 (2019): 159–166.

Cobb, Joyanne, David C. Wittenburg, and Cara Stepanczuk. “Possible State Intervention Options to Serve Transition-Age Youths: Lessons from the West Virginia Youth Works Demonstration Project.” Social Security Bulletin 78, 3 (2018): 43–58.

Coe, Norma B. and Kalman Rupp. Does Access to Health Insurance Influence Work Effort Among Disability Cash Benefit Recipients. Center for Retirement Research Working Paper No. 2013-10, Center for Retirement Research at Boston College, April 2013.

Coe, Norma B. and Matthew S. Rutledge. What is the Long-Term Impact of Zebley on Adult and Child Outcomes? Center for Retirement Research Working Paper No. 2013-3, Center for Retirement Research at Boston College, January 2013.

Congressional Budget Office. 2012. Supplemental Security Income: An Overview. Washington, DC: CBO.

Cook, Judith A. and Jane K. Burke-Miller. The Pathway to SSA Disability Program Entry Among Medicaid Enrollees 2007-2011: The Role of Serious Mental Illness, Multiple Impairments, and Recent Health Care Utilization. DRC Working Paper No. 2019-08, Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, March 2019.

________. The Relationship of Multiple Program Benefits and Employment to SSI/DI Enrollment and Reliance Among Working-Age Adults with Serious Mental Illness. DRC Working Paper No. 2017-03, Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, October 2017.

Cook, Judith A., Jane K. Burke-Miller, and Thomas M. Bohman. Demonstration to Maintain Independence and Employment in Texas: Long-Term Follow-Up of Health Services Utilization and Employment Outcomes? DRC Brief No. 2017-05, Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, September 2017.

Cook, Judith A., Jane K. Burke-Miller, and Dennis D. Grey. Impact of Contingent Work on Subsequent Labor Force Participation and Wages of Workers with Psychiatric Disabilities. DRC Working Paper No. 2015-02, Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, May 2015.

Cook, Judith A., Jane K. Burke-Miller, and Emily Roessel. “Long-Term Effects of Evidence-Based Supported Employment on Earnings and on SSI and SSDI Participation Among Individuals with Psychiatric Disabilities.” American Journal of Psychiatry 173, 10 (2016): 1007–1014.

Costa, Jackson. “The Decline in Earnings Prior to Application For Disability Insurance Benefits.” Social Security Bulletin 77, 1 (2017): 1–15.

Crane, Kelli Thuli, Paul B. Gold, Andy Brodock, Ellen S. Fabian, and Taylor R. Morris. “Engaging and Retaining Youth SSI Recipients in a Research Demonstration Program: Maryland PROMISE.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 51, 2 (2019): 137–144.

Crane, Kelli, Richard Luecking, Todd Honeycutt, and Sarah Palmer. SSI Youth Recipient and Employment Transition Formative Research Project: Community of Practice: Organizational Features and Lessons Learned. Washington, DC: Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, September 2018.

Cutler, David, Ellen Meara, Susan Stewart. Socioeconomic Status, Perceptions of Pain, and the Gradient in Disability Insurance. NBER Retirement and Disability Research Center Project No. NB19-03, National Bureau of Economic Research, September 2019.

Daly, Mary C. “The Other Welfare: Supplemental Security Income and U.S. Social Policy.” Journal of Economic Literature, 52, 2 (June 2014): 541–543(3).

Daly, Mary C. and Mark Duggan. “When One Size Does Not Fit All: Modernizing the Supplemental Security Income Program.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 686, 1 (2019): 229–249.

Davies, Paul S. and Jeffrey Hemmeter. “Supplemental Security Income Recipients Affected by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita: An Analysis of Two Years of Administrative Data,” Population and Environment – Special Issue on Demographic Dynamics and Natural Disasters: Learning from Katrina and Rita 31(1–3) (2010): 87–120.

Denny-Brown, Noelle, Bonnie O’Day, and Stephanie McLeod. “Staying Employed: Services and Supports for Workers with Disabilities.” Journal of Disability Policy Studies 26, 2 (2015): 124–131.

Deshpande, Manasi. “Does Welfare Inhibit Success? The Long-Term Effects of Removing Low-Income Youth from the Disability Rolls.” American Economic Review 106, 11 (2016): 3300–3330.

________. The Effect of the Supplemental Security Income Children’s Program on Parental Labor Supply and Long-Term Outcomes of Enrolled Children. NBER Disability Research Center Working Paper No. NB-13-04, National Bureau of Economic Research, September 2013.

________. How Disability Benefits in Early Life Affect Long-Term Outcomes. NBER Retirement and Disability Research Center Paper No. NB-20-05, National Bureau of Economic Research, August 2020.

Dizon-Ross, Rebecca, and Manasi Deshpande. Knowledge and Nudges: Intermediate Outcomes and Mechanisms. NBER Disability Research Center Paper No. NB 19-21, National Bureau of Economic Research (forthcoming).

Duggan, Mark, Melissa S. Kearney, and Stephanie Rennane. The Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Program. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 21209, May 2015.

Dushi, Irena and Kalman Rupp. “Disability Shocks near Retirement Age and Financial Well-Being.” Social Security Bulletin, 73, 3 (2013): 23–43.

Emenheiser, David E., Corinne Weidenthal, Selete Avoke, and Marlene Simon-Burroughs. “Overview of PROMISE.” Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals (2020): DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143420980458.

Enayati, Hassan and Arun Karpur. “Impact of Participation in School-to-Work Programs on Postsecondary Outcomes for Youth with Disabilities from Low-Income Families.” Journal of Disability Policy Studies (2019): DOI: 10.1177/1044207318789419.

Enayati, Hassan and Leslie A. Shaw. “Bounding the Return on Investment and Projecting the Costs of Expanding PROMISE Services and Activities: Initial Insights from PROMISE for Policymakers.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 51, 2 (2019): 263–273.

Erkulwater, Jennifer L. “The Other Welfare: Supplemental Security Income and U.S. Social Policy.” Journal of Children and Poverty 19, 2 (2013): 127–137.

Farooqi, Farkhanda I. “The Inequities of the Supplemental Security Income Program: The Need for Policy Change.” Professional Case Management 25, 5 (2020): 291–296.

Farrell, Mary. Connections between TANF and SSI: Lessons from the TANF/SSI Disability Transition Project, OPRE Report 2013-57, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation; Administration for Children and Families; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, December 2013.

Farrell, Mary, Peter Baird, Bret Barden, Mike Fishman, and Rachel Pardoe. The TANF/SSI Disability Transition Project: Innovative Strategies for Serving TANF Recipients with Disabilities, OPRE Report 2013-51, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation; Administration for Children and Families; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, December 2013.

Farrell, Mary and Johanna Walter. The Intersection of Welfare and Disability: Early Findings from the TANF/SSI Disability Transition Project, OPRE Report 2013-06, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation; Administration for Children and Families; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, December 2013.

Fraker, Thomas. The Youth Transition Demonstration: Lifting Employment Barriers for Youth with Disabilities. Center for Studying Disability Policy Issue Brief Number 13-01. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc., February 2013.

Fraker, Thomas, Peter Baird, Arif Mamun, Michelle Manno, John Martinez, Debbie Reed, and Allison Thompkins. The Social Security Administration’s Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Interim Report on the Career Transition Program. Report Prepared for the Social Security Administration, December 2012.

Fraker, Thomas M., Joyanne Cobb, Jeffrey Hemmeter, Richard G. Luecking, and Arif Mamun. “Three-Year Effects of the Youth Transition Demonstration Projects.” Social Security Bulletin 78, 3 (2018): 19–41.

Fraker, Thomas M., Kelli T. Crane, Todd C. Honeycutt, Richard G. Luecking, Arif A. Mamun, and Bonnie L. O'Day. “The Youth Transition Demonstration Project in Miami, Florida: Design, Implementation, and Three-Year Impacts.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 48, 1 (2018): 79–91.

Fraker, Thomas and Todd Honeycutt. Promoting Readiness of Minors in Supplemental Security Income (PROMISE): Recommendation of the Technical Advisory Panel Regarding the Use of Incentive Payments and the Evaluation Design. Final Report. Report prepared for the Social Security Administration, February 2012.

Fraker, Thomas, Todd Honeycutt, Arif Mamun, Michelle Manno, John Martinez, Bonnie O'Day, Debbie Reed, and Allison Thompkins. The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Interim Report on Broadened Horizons, Brighter Futures. Report prepared for the Social Security Administration, December 2012.

Fraker, Thomas, Arif Mamun, Todd Honeycutt, Allison Thompkins, and Erin Jacobs Valentine. Final Report on the Youth Transition Demonstration Evaluation. Report prepared for the Social Security Administration, November 2014.

Fraker, Thomas, Arif Mamun, Michelle Manno, John Martinez, Debbie Reed, Allison Thompkins, and David Wittenburg. The Social Security Administration's Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Interim Report on West Virginia Youth Works. Report prepared for the Social Security Administration, December 2012.

Fremstad, Shawn and Rebecca Vallas. Supplemental Security Income for Children with Disabilities. Social Security Brief No. 40. Washington, DC: National Academy of Social Insurance, November 2012.

Gelber, Alexander, Timothy J. Moore, and Alexander Strand. “The Effect of Disability Insurance Payments on Beneficiaries’ Earnings.” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 9, 3 (2017): 229–261.

Gettens, John, Alexis D. Henry, Aniko Laszlo, and Jay Himmelstein. “The Prospect of Losing Benefits and the Work Decisions of Participants in Disability Programs: A Cross-Program Comparison.” Journal of Disability Policy Studies 23, 3 (2012): 179–189.

Gettens, Jack, Pei-Pei Lei, and Alexis Henry. Accounting for Geographic Variation in DI and SSI Participation. DRC Working Paper No. 2016-03, Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, March 2016.

________. “Accounting for Geographic Variation in Social Security Disability Program Participation.” Social Security Bulletin 78, 2 (2018): 29–47.

Ghosh, Subharati, and Susan L. Parish. “Deprivation Among U.S. Children with Disabilities Who Receive Supplemental Security Income.” Journal of Disability Policy Studies 26, 3 (2014): 173–183.

Gimm, Gilbert, Denise Hoffman, and Henry T. Ireys. “Early Interventions to Prevent Disability for Workers with Mental Health Conditions: Impacts from the DMIE.” Disability and Health Journal 7, 1 (2014): 56–63.

Gold, Paul B., Kelli Thuli Crane, Ellen S. Fabian, and Taylor R. Morris. “Strategies for Recruiting Participants into Randomized Controlled Trials: A Cross-Program Profile of the PROMISE Demonstration Program.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 52, 2 (2019): 243–252.

Golden, Thomas P., Arun Karpur, and Michelle Podolec. “Centering Communities, Constellations and Networks of Practice to Improve Youth Post-School Outcomes Through PROMISE.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 51, 2 (2019): 115–125.

Goodman-Bacon, Andrew, and Lucie Schmidt. “Federalizing Benefits: The Introduction of Supplemental Security Income and the Size of the Safety Net.” Journal of Public Economics 185 (2020): DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104174.

Guldi, Melanie, Amelia Hawkins, Jeffrey Hemmeter and Lucie Schmidt. Supplemental Security Income and Child Outcomes: Evidence from Birth Weight Eligibility Cutoffs. NBER Working Paper No. 24913, National Bureau of Economic Research, August 2018.

Hall, Jean P., Catherine Ipsen, Noelle K. Kurth, Sara McCormick, and Catherine Chambless. “How Family Crises May Limit Engagement of Youth With Disabilities in Services to Support Successful Transitions to Postsecondary Education and Employment.” Children and Youth Services Review 118 (2020): DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105339.

Hamman, Mary. The Demographics Behind Aging in Place: Implications for Supplemental Security Income Eligibility and Receipt. University of Wisconsin-Madison Retirement & Disability Research Center Project No. WI20-09 (September 2020).

Hamman, Mary K., Brooke Helppie-McFall, and Daniela Hochfellner. “Incentives for Home and Community Based Care Under the Affordable Care Act: Implications for Supplemental Security Income Receipt.” Paper presented at 21st Annual SSA Research Consortium Meeting, Washington, DC, August 2019.

Hartmann, Ellie, Amanda Schlegelmilch, Matthew Roskowski, Catherine A. Anderson, and Timothy N. Tansey. “Early Findings from the Wisconsin PROMISE Project: Implications for Policy and Practice.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 51, 2 (2019): 167–181.

Heinemann, Allen W. and Paul A. Volberding. “National Academies Consensus Report on Functional Assessment for Adults with Disabilities.” Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 100, 12 (2019): 2407–2408.

Hembre, Erik and Carly Urban. “Housing Assistance and SSI Participation.” University of Wisconsin-Madison Retirement & Disability Research Center Project No. WI19-07 (November 2019).

________. Local Public Housing Authorities’ Housing Choice Voucher Policies Can Affect SSI Participation. University of Wisconsin-Madison Retirement & Disability Research Center Project No. WI20-07 (July 2020).

Hemmeter, Jeffrey. Changes in Diagnostic Codes at Age 18. Research and Statistics Note, No. 2012-04. Washington, DC: Office of Retirement and Disability Policy, Social Security Administration, October 2012.

________. “Earnings and Disability Program Participation of Youth Transition Demonstration Participants After 24 months.” Social Security Bulletin 74, 1 (2014): 1–25.

________. “Supplemental Security Income Program Entry at Age 18 and Entrants’ Subsequent Earnings.” Social Security Bulletin 75, 3 (2015): 35–53.

Hemmeter, Jeffrey and Michelle Stegman Bailey. Childhood Continuing Disability Reviews and Age-18 Redeterminations for Supplemental Security Income Recipients: Outcomes and Subsequent Program Participation, Research and Statistics Note No. 2015-03. Washington, DC: Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy, Social Security Administration, October 2015.

Hemmeter, Jeffrey and Paul S. Davies. “Infant Mortality Among Supplemental Security Income Applicants.” Social Security Bulletin 79, 2 (2019): 51–63.

Hemmeter, Jeffrey, Mark Donovan, Joyanne Cobb, and Tad Asbury. “Long Term Earnings and Disability Program Participation Outcomes of the Bridges Transition Program.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 42, 1 (2015): 1–15.

Hemmeter, Jeffrey, Michael Levere, Pragya Singh, and David Wittenburg. "Changing Stays? Duration of Supplemental Security Income Participation by Children and the Role of Continuing Disability Reviews." Social Security Bulletin 81, 2 (2021): (forthcoming).

Hemmeter, Jeffrey, David R. Mann, and David C. Wittenburg. “Supplemental Security Income and the Transition to Adulthood in the United States: State Variations in Outcomes Following the Age-18 Redetermination.” Social Service Review 91, 1 (2017): 106–133.

Hemmeter, Jeffrey, Elana Safran, and Nicholas Wilson. “Communicating Program Eligibility: A Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Field Experiment.” AEA RCT Registry. February 12, 2018.

Hemmeter, Jeffrey and Michelle Stegman. “Subsequent Program Participation of Former Social Security Disability Insurance Beneficiaries and Supplemental Security Income Recipients Whose Eligibility Ceased Because of Medical Improvement.” Social Security Bulletin 73, 2 (2013): 1–38.

Hill, Anna and Purvi Sevak. Trends in Medical Conditions and Functioning in the U.S. Population, 1997–2017. DRC Working Paper No. 2019-11, Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, September 2019.

Hoagwood, Kimberly E., Bonnie T. Zima, Stephen L. Buka, Amy Houtrow, and Kelly J. Kelleher. “State-to-State Variation in SSI Enrollment for Children with Mental Disabilities: An Administrative and Ethical Challenge.” Psychiatric Services 68, 2 (2016): 195–198.

Hoffman, Denise, Jeffrey Hemmeter, and Michelle Stegman Bailey. “The Relationship Between Youth Services and Adult Outcomes Among Former Child SSI Recipients.” Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 48, 2 (2018): 233–247.

________. Vocational Rehabilitation: A Bridge to Self-Sufficiency for Youth Who Receive Supplemental Security Income? DRC Brief No. 2017-03, Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, April 2017.

Honeycutt, Todd C., Priyanka Anand, Max Rubinstein, and Steven N. Stern. “Public Provision of Postsecondary Education for Transition-Age Youth With Mental Health Conditions.” Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 40, 2 (2017): 183–196.

Honeycutt, Todd, Brittney Gionfriddo, Jacqueline Kauff, Joseph Mastrianni, Nicolas Redel, and Adele Rizzuto. Promoting Readiness of Minors in Supplemental Security Income (PROMISE): Arkansas PROMISE Process Analysis Report. Washington, DC: Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, September 2018.

Honeycutt, Todd, Brittney Gionfriddo, and Gina Livermore. Promoting Readiness of Minors in Supplemental Security Income (PROMISE): PROMISE Programs' Use of Effective Transition Practices in Serving Youth with Disabilities. Washington, DC: Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, October 2018.

Honeycutt, Todd and Gina Livermore. Promoting Readiness of Minors in Supplemental Security Income (PROMISE): The Role of PROMISE in the Landscape of Federal Programs Targeting Youth with Disabilities. Washington, DC: Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, December 2018.

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________. Identifying Transition-Age Youth with Disabilities Using Existing Surveys. Report prepared for the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research, July 2012.

Honeycutt, Todd, David Wittenburg, Kelli Crane, Michael Levere, Richard Luecking, and David Stapleton. SSI Youth Formative Research Project: Considerations for Identifying Promising and Testable Interventions. Washington, DC: Mathematica Center for Studying Disability Policy, November 2018.

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2021 Annual Report of the SSI Program