Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized DI, SSI, and OASI Program Participants, 2016 Update

by
Research and Statistics Note No. 2022-01 (released April 2022)

The authors are with the Office of Research, Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy, Social Security Administration.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Lynn Fisher, Pat Purcell, Chris Tamborini, Anya Olsen, Mark Sarney, Jeff Hemmeter, Shelley Bailey, Ben Pitkin, and Jessie Dalrymple for many helpful suggestions and feedback.

Contents of this publication are not copyrighted; any items may be reprinted, but citation is requested. The findings and conclusions presented in this note are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Social Security Administration.

Introduction

Selected Abbreviations
ASEC Annual Social and Economic Supplement
CPS Current Population Survey
DI Disability Insurance
OASDI Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance
OASI Old-Age and Survivors Insurance
PHUS Payment History Update System
SIPP Survey of Income and Program Participation
SNAP Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
SSA Social Security Administration
SSI Supplemental Security Income
SSR Supplemental Security Record
TANF Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
WIC Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children

The Social Security Administration (SSA) produces several statistical publications based on the data used to administer the Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) programs. Although these data are extensive, they do not capture many of the economic and demographic characteristics of program participants. To better understand those beneficiary populations, SSA matches information from its administrative records with data collected in surveys conducted by the Census Bureau and presents the results in notes such as this. DeCesaro and Hemmeter (2008) contains tables describing the characteristics of SSI and Social Security Disability Insurance (DI) participants based on 2002 Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) data. Bailey and Hemmeter (2014) updates those tables with 2010 SIPP data, and Bailey and Hemmeter (2015) updates them with 2013 SIPP data. This note updates the tables for 2016 using data from the March 2017 Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC) of the Current Population Survey (CPS). It expands on previous notes by also including statistics on Social Security Old-Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) beneficiaries.

Data and Methodology

The CPS is a household survey of the noninstitutionalized resident population of the United States. The ASEC focuses specifically on various sources of household, family, and individual income. We use CPS ASEC data for this update for two reasons. First, the CPS ASEC has a larger sample than the SIPP does. This larger sample size allows us to report statistics for racial groups and other subpopulations that could not be covered in previous versions of this note. Second, the CPS ASEC is collected on an annual basis with relatively few changes between survey years, which allows us to compare beneficiary characteristics across single years.

We match 2017 CPS ASEC data to Social Security administrative records for 2016 based on the respondent's validated Social Security number. We include only individuals with matched records, who constitute roughly 85 percent of the CPS ASEC sample. We then adjust the survey weights to match our subsample to the full survey population. Using logit modeling, our approach identifies a combination of observable factors that predict whether a survey respondent has an administrative-data match in SSA's Numerical Identification System (Numident) file.

We run a series of logit models, the most robust of which includes age, race/ethnicity, nativity, education, family income, and the householder's marital status as predictive factors. Using this model, we assign a propensity score to each CPS ASEC respondent that indicates the likelihood, based on that individual's set of observable characteristics, that the Numident contains a matching record. We multiply the survey weights of individuals with matching Numident data by the inverse of this propensity score, so that individuals with lower propensity scores receive higher adjustments. For instance, individuals with lower levels of education or who were born outside the United States are found to be less likely to have matching administrative records and thus receive a higher adjusted weight. The interquartile range of the adjusted survey weights is from 109 percent to 119 percent of the original survey weights. This approach produces Social Security beneficiary and SSI recipient counts in line with administrative records for noninstitutionalized populations. Unlike the weights in previous versions of this note, ours are not adjusted to account for Social Security beneficiaries or SSI recipients residing in institutions.

We identify individuals as Social Security beneficiaries and SSI recipients if administrative records indicate that they received a payment in any month in 2016. To identify Social Security beneficiaries, we use SSA's Master Beneficiary Record (MBR) and Payment History Update System (PHUS). For this note, if an individual has an OASDI payment recorded in the PHUS and the MBR indicates that the person qualifies for the benefit because of disability, we classify that individual as a disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiary. This definition includes disabled workers, disabled widow(er)s, and disabled adult children.1 If the MBR indicates that an individual qualifies for an OASDI benefit based on age rather than because of a disability, we classify that person as an aged Social Security (OASI) beneficiary. That sample includes covered workers aged 62 or older, individuals aged 62 or older who are eligible as the spouse or surviving parent of a covered worker, and individuals aged 60 or older who are eligible as the widow(er) of a covered worker; it excludes individuals who receive Social Security benefits as dependents or survivors of covered workers but are not in those age groups.

In this note, Social Security payments for 2016 reflect the sum of all payments recorded in the PHUS for that year. In some cases, disabled beneficiaries receive lump-sum retroactive DI payments covering the period between the first month they were eligible for payments and the month benefit payments commenced after the disability determination process. Because these retroactive payments generally occur only once during the lifetime of a disabled beneficiary, they do not reflect the monthly Social Security income that beneficiaries typically receive. We account for these retroactive lump sums by censoring monthly OASDI payments at the 99th percentile for that month, which averaged $7,400 in 2016.2

To identify SSI recipients, we use the Supplemental Security Record (SSR). For individuals who received any SSI payments in 2016, we sum the monthly amounts to calculate the annual SSI amount received. Some disabled and aged Social Security beneficiaries—15.5 percent and 2.6 percent, respectively—receive concurrent SSI payments. Thus, our sample includes overlap between SSI recipients and Social Security beneficiaries.

We measure family income and poverty for calendar year 2016. We define “family” as two or more persons residing together who are related by blood, marriage, or adoption. When counting family Social Security income and SSI payments, we use administrative data values for all family members with matching records. For family members who do not have an administrative-data match, we use the income amounts they reported in the CPS ASEC. Likewise, for earnings, we use administrative records from SSA's Master Earnings File for individuals with an administrative-data match, and self-reported earnings in the CPS ASEC for individuals without a match. Where we find administrative-data matches for respondents' family members, we recalculate family income by subtracting self-reported OASDI benefit amounts, SSI payment amounts, and earnings, then substituting the respective values from their administrative records.3 We base all other demographic characteristics on self-reported CPS ASEC data for March 2017, the month the survey was conducted.

Although most of the variables in the CPS ASEC mirror those from the SIPP, there are some differences relating to public assistance. For instance, 44 states and the District of Columbia supplement the federal payments for SSI recipients. SIPP respondents report federal SSI payments and state SSI supplementation payments separately, while the CPS questionnaire does not differentiate between the two payment types. Previous versions of this note define SSI as federal payments only and classify state SSI supplementation payments as a separate form of public assistance. This update instead includes both federal and state supplementation payments in the computation of SSI amounts received.

Of the states that provide SSI supplementation, some administer those payments themselves and others agree to have SSA administer them.4 For the latter, we use the state supplementation amounts recorded in the SSR. However, the SSR does not record the supplementation amounts for the states that administer their own payments. Where possible, we impute those state supplementation payments based on SSI recipient characteristics such as living arrangement and dependent status. Using the most recent documentation of state supplementation rules and payment amounts available at SSA and state agency websites, we approximate a recipient's eligibility for state SSI supplementation and the monthly amount that would be received. Appendix A describes our imputation process.

Other forms of public assistance measured in the CPS include Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF); Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) benefits; Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits (formerly known as food stamps); state and local general assistance; financial assistance from individuals; energy assistance; public housing; rental subsidies; and other welfare.5 Consistent with the approach used in previous versions of this note, we recode the CPS Medicaid variable to reflect the automatic Medicaid coverage of SSI recipients in certain states under Section 1634 of the Social Security Act.6 In this version of the note, we also recode the CPS Medicare variable to include both self-reported Medicare coverage (of any kind) and Medicare Part B coverage reflected in the PHUS. Recoding these variables using administrative records may reduce the effects of underreported insurance coverage (or misreported coverage type) in the CPS ASEC.7

Our samples comprise 4,670 disabled Social Security beneficiaries, 3,931 SSI recipients, and 20,952 aged Social Security beneficiaries. The disabled Social Security beneficiary and SSI samples are nearly twice the size of those covered in previous notes because the CPS sample is larger than the SIPP's. As noted earlier, we use survey weights adjusted for the likelihood that a respondent has a matching record in the administrative data. All household surveys, including the CPS ASEC, are subject to some degree of measurement error; however, the CPS ASEC is a source of valuable data. It provides richly detailed information on population characteristics and, despite deficiencies in measuring some income sources, it captures most sources, including earnings and Social Security benefits, with reasonable accuracy. Readers should nevertheless be aware of the limitations of CPS data and consider them when interpreting results.

Discussion of the Estimates

Tables 1–5 present estimates for disabled Social Security beneficiaries, Tables 6–10 present estimates for SSI recipients, and Tables 11–12 present estimates for aged Social Security beneficiaries. Each table presents estimates for the full noninstitutionalized population of disabled Social Security beneficiaries, SSI recipients, or aged Social Security beneficiaries, as applicable.

Although the tables in this update resemble the tables in previous editions of this note in structure, they differ in six significant ways. First, as noted above, this update introduces new tables on aged Social Security beneficiaries (Tables 11 and 12). However, because of concerns about the accuracy of survey-reported income for aged respondents, the new tables omit estimates of income by source and income relative to the poverty threshold. Bee and Mitchell (2017) and Dushi and Trenkamp (2021) show that the CPS ASEC consistently understates the retirement income (comprising pension benefits and retirement account distributions) of aged respondents. In both studies, the authors link the CPS ASEC data with administrative records from SSA and the IRS, with which they validate data for income sources including earnings, Social Security benefits, SSI payments, interest and dividend income, and retirement income. Both studies find significant underreporting of retirement income among individuals aged 65 or older across a wide range of demographic characteristics. Retirement income is an important component of overall income for aged Social Security beneficiaries, and because it is underreported in the CPS ASEC, we omit statistics on income amounts and poverty for this population.

Second, estimates of the shares of income by category now include detail for retirement income and veterans' benefits for disabled DI beneficiaries (Table 4) and SSI recipients (Table 9). In previous editions of this note, those sources were included in the “other” income category. Because retirement income is not a primary component of the family income of disabled beneficiaries and SSI recipients, its inclusion does not subject the estimates to the same kind of uncertainty that leads us to omit estimates by income category for aged OASI beneficiaries.

Third, this update omits tables addressing the poverty-reduction effects of Social Security benefits and SSI payments (Tables 6A, 6B, and 7 in Bailey and Hemmeter 2015).

Fourth, this update expands the number of race categories from three (White, Black, other) to five: White, Black, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander. Because CPS respondents can select multiple racial identities, each of these categories may be reported either singly or in combination with one or more others; as such, the sum of the racial-category values exceeds the number of respondents in the sample. A sixth category, “two or more races,” accounts for individuals who reported multiple racial identities.

Fifth, this update presents estimates for family income but not for personal or household income. We focus on family income because it serves as the official basis of poverty statistics in the United States. It also accounts more fully than individual income for the resources on which Social Security program populations may draw.8

Finally, this update reports educational attainment only for individuals aged 25 or older to reduce the likelihood that our measures include those who have not yet completed their education.

Disabled Social Security Beneficiaries

The DI program provides monthly benefits to individuals with a severe long-term disability that prevents them from engaging in “substantial” work (defined as earnings of $13,560 or more for nonblind individuals in 2016). To qualify for DI benefits, an individual must have worked in a job with Social Security–covered earnings for a specified length of time or be the spouse or dependent of an individual with qualifying earnings. Our sample of disabled Social Security beneficiaries comprises disabled workers, disabled widow(er)s, and disabled adult children.9 Because 91 percent of the beneficiaries in this sample are disabled workers, Tables 1–5 present information separately for that subgroup, although we do not discuss those results in the text below.

Table 1 shows that more than one in five disabled Social Security beneficiaries (21.2 percent) identify as Black, 3.4 percent identify as American Indian or Alaska Native, 2.1 percent identify as Asian, 0.5 percent identify as Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and 2.5 percent identify as multiracial. The CPS measures ethnicity separately from race, and 11.7 percent of beneficiaries identify as Hispanic. Nearly two-fifths of beneficiaries (38.7 percent) are married, 28.7 percent have never been married, 26.0 percent are divorced or separated, and 6.6 percent are widowed. Fewer than one-fifth of beneficiaries (18.1 percent) aged 25 or older have not acquired a high school diploma or equivalent, while 11.1 percent of beneficiaries have a bachelor's or higher degree. Nearly one in ten beneficiaries (9.2 percent) are veterans.

Table 1. Number and percentage distribution of disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries, by selected demographic characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Number Percent
All disabled beneficiaries Disabled workers All disabled beneficiaries Disabled workers
Total 9,669,012 8,766,859 100.0 100.0
Sex
Men 4,882,967 4,369,165 50.5 49.8
Women 4,786,045 4,397,694 49.5 50.2
Race a
Singly or in combination
White 7,313,906 6,671,128 75.6 76.1
Black 2,046,097 1,809,034 21.2 20.6
American Indian or Alaska Native 325,622 301,062 3.4 3.4
Asian 201,768 172,373 2.1 2.0
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 45,530 44,812 0.5 0.5
Two or more races 244,102 211,918 2.5 2.4
Ethnicity
Hispanic 1,136,036 989,627 11.7 11.3
Non-Hispanic 8,532,977 7,777,232 88.3 88.7
Marital status
Married 3,737,787 3,720,738 38.7 42.4
Widowed 639,583 567,347 6.6 6.5
Divorced or separated 2,512,668 2,480,653 26.0 28.3
Never married 2,778,975 1,998,121 28.7 22.8
Educational attainment b
Less than high school diploma 1,713,884 1,431,450 18.1 16.4
High school diploma or equivalent 4,018,086 3,663,476 42.5 41.9
Some college 2,681,275 2,614,149 28.3 29.9
Bachelor's or higher degree 1,051,707 1,024,189 11.1 11.7
Veteran status
Veteran 886,838 882,890 9.2 10.1
Nonveteran 8,782,175 7,883,969 90.8 89.9
Health insurance
Medicaid only 1,179,311 946,865 12.2 10.8
Medicare only 2,777,318 2,628,901 28.7 30.0
Private only 595,859 558,910 6.2 6.4
Medicaid and Medicare 2,400,633 2,092,033 24.8 23.9
Medicaid and private 299,224 237,474 3.1 2.7
Medicare and private 1,747,344 1,688,175 18.1 19.3
Medicaid, Medicare, and private 395,107 364,231 4.1 4.2
Military servicemember coverage 91,644 88,445 0.9 1.0
None 182,573 161,825 1.9 1.8
Source of family income a
Public assistance
SSI 1,921,158 1,468,738 19.9 16.8
Other public assistance c 635,602 555,317 6.6 6.3
Earnings 4,891,683 4,456,238 50.6 50.8
Property income 4,086,007 3,744,116 42.3 42.7
Retirement income 1,546,874 1,414,662 16.0 16.1
Veterans' benefits 429,639 399,764 4.4 4.6
Other income d 2,615,478 2,376,476 27.1 27.1
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: "Disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries" includes disabled workers, disabled widow(er)s, and disabled adult children but excludes nondisabled individuals receiving DI benefits as dependents of disabled workers.
Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
a. Individuals may be counted in more than one category.
b. Includes only individuals aged 25 or older to capture the distribution of those most likely to have completed their educational progress.
c. Includes TANF, WIC benefits, SNAP food assistance, public housing, rent subsidies, energy assistance, state and local general financial assistance, and other welfare.
d. Includes unemployment benefits; worker's compensation; disability benefits other than DI, SSI, or veterans' benefits; child support; alimony; and business or farm income.

Although disabled Social Security beneficiaries are eligible for Medicare, coverage generally does not begin until 24 months after the first month that an individual is eligible to receive DI benefits. Roughly three-quarters (75.7 percent) of beneficiaries report Medicare coverage (alone or in combination with other coverage), 44.2 percent report Medicaid coverage, 31.4 percent report private health insurance, and 1.9 percent report having no health insurance (Chart 1). About 29 percent of beneficiaries report joint Medicare and Medicaid coverage and 12.2 percent have only Medicaid coverage (Table 1).

Bar chart with tabular version below.
Show as table
Table equivalent for Chart 1. Disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries, by type of health insurance coverage, 2016
Type of insurance Percent
Medicaid 44.2
Medicare 75.7
Private 31.4
None 1.9
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: “Disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries” includes disabled workers, disabled widow(er)s, and disabled adult children but excludes nondisabled individuals receiving DI benefits as dependents of disabled workers.
Individuals may have more than one type of coverage.

Family income includes SSI payments for about one in five disabled Social Security beneficiaries. Other common sources of family income include earnings (50.6 percent) and property income (42.3 percent).10 Less common sources are retirement income (16.0 percent) and veterans' benefits (4.4 percent).

DI benefits constitute at least 75 percent of family income for almost two-fifths (37.9 percent) of disabled beneficiaries (Table 2). Social Security tends to account for larger proportions of family income among older beneficiaries. For instance, roughly one-third of beneficiaries aged 60 or older rely on Social Security benefits for at least 90 percent of family income, while 16.2 percent of beneficiaries younger than 40 do. Social Security benefits also tend to account for larger proportions of family income among beneficiaries who did not complete high school, are not married, or do not live with relatives.

Table 2. Percentage distribution of disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries, by share of family income derived from DI benefits and selected demographic characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Number Percent Share of family income derived from DI benefits
Total Less than 50% 50–74% 75–89% 90–100%
  All disabled beneficiaries
Total 9,669,012 100.0 100.0 43.6 18.6 9.0 28.9
Sex
Men 4,882,967 50.5 100.0 42.1 18.7 8.0 31.3
Women 4,786,045 49.5 100.0 45.2 18.4 9.9 26.4
Age
Under 40 1,182,232 12.2 100.0 59.7 17.1 7.0 16.2
40–49 1,393,135 14.4 100.0 46.0 21.8 10.6 21.7
50–59 3,531,306 36.5 100.0 42.6 17.8 8.3 31.4
60 or older 3,562,339 36.8 100.0 38.4 18.5 9.7 33.4
Race a
Singly or in combination
White 7,313,906 75.6 100.0 43.4 18.7 9.3 28.6
Black 2,046,097 21.2 100.0 44.7 17.3 8.1 30.0
American Indian or Alaska Native 325,622 3.4 100.0 45.1 18.8 9.2 26.9
Asian 201,768 2.1 100.0 52.8 (X) (X) 22.9
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 45,530 0.5 100.0 33.6 (X) (X) (X)
Two or more races 244,102 2.5 100.0 54.6 13.4 7.9 24.1
Ethnicity
Hispanic 1,136,036 11.7 100.0 50.1 20.0 7.0 22.9
Non-Hispanic 8,532,977 88.3 100.0 42.8 18.4 9.2 29.7
Marital status
Married 3,737,787 38.7 100.0 62.4 15.8 6.6 15.3
Widowed 639,583 6.6 100.0 33.1 20.4 11.4 35.1
Divorced or separated 2,512,668 26.0 100.0 26.2 21.0 8.8 44.1
Never married 2,778,975 28.7 100.0 36.5 19.7 11.8 32.0
Educational attainment b
Less than high school diploma 1,713,884 18.1 100.0 37.3 19.9 8.2 34.6
High school diploma or equivalent 4,018,086 42.5 100.0 40.1 18.4 10.3 31.3
Some college 2,681,275 28.3 100.0 46.7 19.0 7.9 26.5
Bachelor's or higher degree 1,051,707 11.1 100.0 54.8 17.1 7.8 20.2
Living arrangement
Lives alone 2,408,904 24.9 100.0 19.0 18.5 10.1 52.4
Lives with relatives 6,437,139 66.6 100.0 56.0 18.8 8.2 17.0
Lives only with nonrelatives 822,969 8.5 100.0 19.1 17.2 11.3 52.5
  Disabled workers
Total 8,766,859 100.0 100.0 43.3 18.5 8.8 29.4
Sex
Men 4,369,165 49.8 100.0 41.3 18.8 7.9 32.1
Women 4,397,694 50.2 100.0 45.3 18.2 9.7 26.8
Age
Under 40 732,809 8.4 100.0 62.0 16.4 5.3 16.3
40–49 1,231,801 14.1 100.0 46.8 21.1 10.4 21.8
50–59 3,335,810 38.1 100.0 43.0 18.0 7.8 31.2
60 or older 3,466,439 39.5 100.0 38.4 18.5 9.9 33.2
Race a
Singly or in combination
White 6,671,128 76.1 100.0 43.1 18.6 9.2 29.1
Black 1,809,034 20.6 100.0 43.9 17.6 7.7 30.7
American Indian or Alaska Native 301,062 3.4 100.0 44.0 17.6 9.4 29.0
Asian 172,373 2.0 100.0 54.2 (X) (X) 25.2
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 44,812 0.5 100.0 32.5 (X) (X) (X)
Two or more races 211,918 2.4 100.0 51.3 13.1 8.3 27.3
Ethnicity
Hispanic 989,627 11.3 100.0 49.5 20.4 6.3 23.8
Non-Hispanic 7,777,232 88.7 100.0 42.5 18.2 9.1 30.1
Marital status
Married 3,720,738 42.4 100.0 62.5 15.8 6.6 15.1
Widowed 567,347 6.5 100.0 31.5 21.1 12.4 35.1
Divorced or separated 2,480,653 28.3 100.0 26.0 20.9 8.9 44.3
Never married 1,998,121 22.8 100.0 32.4 19.8 11.8 36.0
Educational attainment b
Less than high school diploma 1,431,450 16.4 100.0 36.4 20.1 8.2 35.4
High school diploma or equivalent 3,663,476 41.9 100.0 40.2 18.0 9.9 31.9
Some college 2,614,149 29.9 100.0 46.4 18.9 8.1 26.6
Bachelor's or higher degree 1,024,189 11.7 100.0 54.7 17.1 7.8 20.5
Living arrangement
Lives alone 2,251,090 25.7 100.0 18.7 17.9 10.1 53.4
Lives with relatives 5,761,741 65.7 100.0 56.1 18.8 8.1 17.1
Lives only with nonrelatives 754,027 8.6 100.0 19.4 18.2 10.3 52.1
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: "Disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries" includes disabled workers, disabled widow(er)s, and disabled adult children but excludes nondisabled individuals receiving DI benefits as dependents of disabled workers.
Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
(X) = suppressed to avoid disclosing information about particular individuals.
a. Individuals may be counted in more than one category.
b. Includes only individuals aged 25 or older to capture the distribution of those most likely to have completed their educational progress.

Almost half (47.8 percent) of Social Security disability beneficiaries have annual family income of less than $30,000, while 60.4 percent are in homeowning families (Table 3). About 28 percent of beneficiary households receive food assistance through SNAP benefits. More than one in ten receive housing or energy assistance—10.8 percent and 10.6 percent, respectively. About two-thirds of disabled Social Security beneficiaries live with other family members, although only 17.2 percent live with a family member younger than 18. Two in five DI beneficiaries live with another Social Security beneficiary in the household.

Table 3. Number and percentage distribution of disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries, by household and family characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Number Percent
All disabled beneficiaries Disabled workers All disabled beneficiaries Disabled workers
Total 9,669,012 8,766,859 100.0 100.0
Household type
Family
Married couple 4,153,144 3,936,707 43.0 44.9
Male householder 618,601 515,734 6.4 5.9
Female householder 1,665,394 1,309,300 17.2 14.9
Nonfamily or group quarters 3,231,873 3,005,118 33.4 34.3
Homeownership status a
Owned 5,839,565 5,331,195 60.4 60.8
Not owned
Public housing 714,276 606,457 7.4 6.9
Other 3,115,172 2,829,207 32.2 32.3
Household receipt of assistance b
Energy 1,022,054 898,627 10.6 10.3
Housing 1,045,484 901,296 10.8 10.3
Food (SNAP) 2,739,798 2,441,585 28.3 27.9
Household size
1 2,408,904 2,251,090 24.9 25.7
2 3,702,247 3,448,195 38.3 39.3
3–4 2,754,161 2,348,807 28.5 26.8
5 or more 803,699 718,766 8.3 8.2
Family size
1 3,231,873 3,005,118 33.4 34.3
2 3,471,473 3,223,145 35.9 36.8
3–4 2,369,939 2,003,443 24.5 22.9
5 or more 595,727 535,153 6.2 6.1
Children under age 18 in family
None 8,005,712 7,245,837 82.8 82.7
1 931,903 829,353 9.6 9.5
2 487,915 465,701 5.1 5.3
3 137,083 127,980 1.4 1.5
4 or more 106,399 97,989 1.1 1.1
Social Security c beneficiaries in household
1 5,872,215 5,471,218 60.7 62.4
2 2,875,326 2,568,485 29.7 29.3
3 or more 921,471 727,156 9.5 8.3
Total annual family income ($)
Less than 7,500 94,577 87,475 1.0 1.0
7,500–14,999 2,036,987 1,805,926 21.1 20.6
15,000–22,499 1,438,208 1,304,917 14.9 14.9
22,500–29,999 1,047,135 988,745 10.8 11.3
30,000–44,999 1,623,444 1,426,674 16.8 16.3
45,000–59,999 1,055,025 977,526 10.9 11.2
60,000 or more 2,373,637 2,175,595 24.5 24.8
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: "Disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries" includes disabled workers, disabled widow(er)s, and disabled adult children but excludes nondisabled individuals receiving DI benefits as dependents of disabled workers.
Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
a. Refers to ownership by any member of the household, not necessarily the beneficiary.
b. Individuals may be counted in more than one category.
c. Includes disability, old-age, and survivors benefits.

Table 4 shows the distribution of family income by source for disabled beneficiaries. The two primary income sources are Social Security benefits (59.1 percent) and earnings (23.7 percent). Social Security benefits constitute a particularly large share of family income for disabled beneficiaries aged 60 or older (63.1 percent), beneficiaries who are not married (63.5 percent if never married, 65.9 percent if widowed, and 72.1 percent if divorced or separated), beneficiaries without a high school diploma (63.8 percent), and those who do not live with relatives (78.4 percent if living with nonrelatives only and 78.5 percent if living alone).

Table 4. Percentage distribution of family income of disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries, by income source and selected demographic characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Total Social Security a Public assistance Earnings Retirement income Property income Veterans' benefits Other income c
SSI Other b
  All disabled beneficiaries
Total 100.0 59.1 4.5 1.1 23.7 4.5 1.9 1.3 4.2
Sex
Men 100.0 61.0 3.7 0.8 22.2 4.7 2.0 1.9 4.0
Women 100.0 57.2 5.3 1.4 25.2 4.3 1.8 0.7 4.3
Age
Under 40 100.0 47.3 10.3 2.3 31.3 3.1 2.0 1.2 3.0
40–49 100.0 55.7 5.8 1.5 27.8 2.1 1.8 0.8 4.7
50–59 100.0 60.4 3.8 1.1 23.8 3.7 1.5 1.3 4.5
60 or older 100.0 63.1 2.8 0.6 19.5 6.6 2.3 1.5 4.0
Race
Singly or in combination
White 100.0 59.1 3.8 1.0 23.5 4.8 2.1 1.4 4.4
Black 100.0 59.3 6.8 1.4 24.3 3.1 1.3 1.1 3.1
American Indian or Alaska Native 100.0 59.6 7.1 2.3 22.2 3.8 1.6 0.6 4.2
Asian 100.0 48.9 4.2 1.5 35.1 5.2 2.5 0.7 2.6
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 100.0 58.5 5.0 0.7 24.8 8.9 1.0 0.1 1.0
Two or more races 100.0 53.9 6.2 2.0 29.8 3.5 0.8 0.5 3.3
Ethnicity
Hispanic 100.0 59.9 4.1 1.1 22.9 4.8 2.0 1.3 4.3
Non-Hispanic 100.0 53.4 7.6 1.2 29.9 2.4 1.2 1.3 3.1
Marital status
Married 100.0 46.0 2.0 0.9 38.4 5.6 2.1 1.4 3.8
Widowed 100.0 65.9 5.3 1.2 14.8 4.6 1.6 1.7 5.3
Divorced or separated 100.0 72.1 4.2 1.3 11.0 3.2 1.2 1.8 5.5
Never married 100.0 63.5 8.1 1.3 17.5 4.1 2.3 0.6 3.1
Educational attainment d
Less than high school diploma 100.0 63.8 7.4 1.2 19.9 2.6 1.0 0.6 3.6
High school diploma or equivalent 100.0 61.9 4.7 0.7 22.6 3.9 1.4 1.0 4.1
Some college 100.0 56.5 2.8 1.6 25.9 5.0 2.3 1.9 4.6
Bachelor's or higher degree 100.0 50.9 1.8 1.3 26.4 8.6 4.5 1.7 4.9
Living arrangement
Lives alone 100.0 78.5 5.0 1.1 4.7 3.1 1.5 1.5 4.7
Lives with relatives 100.0 49.4 4.0 1.2 33.3 5.3 2.1 1.1 4.0
Lives only with nonrelatives 100.0 78.4 7.0 0.4 4.4 2.4 1.7 1.6 4.2
  Disabled workers
Total 100.0 59.4 3.6 1.0 24.1 4.6 1.9 1.3 4.3
Sex
Men 100.0 61.5 2.9 0.7 22.4 4.8 2.1 2.0 4.1
Women 100.0 57.3 4.4 1.3 25.8 4.4 1.8 0.7 4.5
Age
Under 40 100.0 46.0 7.8 1.9 34.7 3.2 2.1 1.6 3.7
40–49 100.0 55.1 4.7 1.5 29.9 1.7 1.8 0.8 4.7
50–59 100.0 60.1 3.4 1.1 24.4 3.7 1.5 1.3 4.6
60 or older 100.0 63.1 2.6 0.6 19.5 6.7 2.3 1.5 4.0
Race
Singly or in combination
White 100.0 59.6 3.0 0.9 23.9 5.0 2.1 1.4 4.6
Black 100.0 59.8 5.7 1.4 24.6 3.3 1.2 1.2 3.3
American Indian or Alaska Native 100.0 61.1 6.8 2.5 22.3 3.0 1.1 0.6 4.3
Asian 100.0 49.5 3.2 1.3 36.3 4.2 2.6 0.7 2.5
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 100.0 59.0 5.1 0.7 24.5 9.0 1.0 0.1 0.6
Two or more races 100.0 56.5 6.8 1.8 27.3 3.4 0.5 0.6 3.2
Ethnicity
Hispanic 100.0 60.1 3.4 1.0 23.2 4.8 2.0 1.4 4.5
Non-Hispanic 100.0 53.8 5.8 1.3 31.2 2.5 1.2 1.3 3.0
Marital status
Married 100.0 45.9 1.9 0.9 38.6 5.7 2.1 1.4 3.9
Widowed 100.0 66.7 4.6 0.8 14.5 4.8 1.7 1.9 5.2
Divorced or separated 100.0 72.3 3.9 1.3 11.0 3.2 1.1 1.8 5.6
Never married 100.0 66.4 6.3 1.0 16.2 4.2 2.6 0.6 3.3
Educational attainment d
Less than high school diploma 100.0 64.3 6.1 1.3 20.6 2.5 1.0 0.6 3.9
High school diploma or equivalent 100.0 62.1 3.9 0.7 23.2 3.8 1.3 1.1 4.2
Some college 100.0 56.7 2.6 1.3 26.1 5.0 2.3 1.9 4.6
Bachelor's or higher degree 100.0 51.1 1.7 1.3 26.1 8.6 4.6 1.7 4.9
Living arrangement
Lives alone 100.0 79.0 4.3 0.9 4.9 3.2 1.6 1.6 4.7
Lives with relatives 100.0 49.3 2.9 1.2 34.2 5.3 2.1 1.1 4.1
Lives only with nonrelatives 100.0 78.1 6.7 0.4 4.4 2.6 1.7 1.8 4.3
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: "Disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries" includes disabled workers, disabled widow(er)s, and disabled adult children but excludes nondisabled individuals receiving DI benefits as dependents of disabled workers.
Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
a. Includes disability, old-age, and survivor benefits.
b. Excludes amounts received in the form of noncash benefits or assistance.
c. Includes unemployment benefits; worker's compensation; disability benefits other than DI, SSI, or veterans' benefits; child support; alimony; and business or farm income.
d. Includes only individuals aged 25 or older to capture the distribution of those most likely to have completed their educational progress.

Although 27.8 percent of disabled Social Security beneficiaries have family income at or above 300 percent of the poverty threshold, 20.1 percent are in poverty (Table 5). Beneficiaries are more likely to have family income below the poverty threshold if they are women (23.7 percent), younger than 40 (28.6 percent), Black (27.3 percent), divorced or separated (27.8 percent), or never married (28.5 percent); or if they do not have a high school diploma (31.7 percent).11 In 2016, the federal poverty threshold was $12,486 for a single adult aged 18–64 and $11,511 for one aged 65 or older (Census Bureau 2022). The proportions of beneficiaries with family income above 300 percent of the poverty threshold differ widely by educational attainment. Only 14.9 percent of beneficiaries without a high school diploma have family income exceeding that threshold, compared with 50.1 percent of beneficiaries with a bachelor's or higher degree (Chart 2).

Table 5. Percentage distribution of disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries, by poverty status and selected demographic characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Total Family income relative to poverty threshold
Less than 100% 100–124% 125–149% 150–199% 200–299% 300% or more
  All disabled beneficiaries
Total 9,669,012 20.1 9.4 8.2 14.2 20.3 27.8
Sex
Men 4,882,967 16.6 9.4 8.3 16.1 21.7 27.9
Women 4,786,045 23.7 9.5 8.1 12.3 18.8 27.7
Age
Under 40 1,182,232 28.6 8.0 9.0 14.4 17.2 22.7
40–49 1,393,135 19.0 9.8 10.4 15.6 21.5 23.7
50–59 3,531,306 21.9 9.5 7.4 13.6 19.8 27.8
60 or older 3,562,339 16.0 9.7 7.8 14.2 21.3 31.1
Race a
Singly or in combination
White 7,313,906 17.8 8.8 8.3 14.1 21.0 29.9
Black 2,046,097 27.3 10.6 7.9 14.6 18.6 21.0
American Indian or Alaska Native 325,622 22.6 12.0 10.6 16.8 17.3 20.6
Asian 201,768 18.6 13.5 (X) (X) 10.9 42.5
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 45,530 38.5 (X) (X) (X) (X) (X)
Two or more races 244,102 19.3 6.4 10.5 14.9 16.7 32.3
Ethnicity
Hispanic 1,136,036 23.7 8.4 10.5 15.9 17.0 24.5
Non-Hispanic 8,532,977 19.7 9.6 7.9 14.0 20.7 28.2
Marital status
Married 3,737,787 8.0 4.9 4.9 12.5 25.1 44.6
Widowed 639,583 24.4 8.7 10.7 20.8 17.2 18.3
Divorced or separated 2,512,668 27.8 14.5 10.5 15.1 16.9 15.2
Never married 2,778,975 28.5 11.1 9.8 14.1 17.6 18.9
Educational attainment b
Less than high school diploma 1,713,884 31.7 11.5 10.6 15.2 16.2 14.9
High school diploma or equivalent 4,018,086 20.6 10.0 8.4 14.3 21.9 24.9
Some college 2,681,275 16.2 8.3 7.8 14.5 21.3 31.9
Bachelor's or higher degree 1,051,707 10.0 6.5 4.7 9.9 18.9 50.1
  Disabled workers
Total 8,766,859 19.6 9.5 7.7 14.5 20.2 28.5
Sex
Men 4,369,165 16.3 9.4 7.8 16.6 21.6 28.3
Women 4,397,694 22.9 9.5 7.6 12.4 18.9 28.7
Age
Under 40 732,809 29.8 8.0 7.6 15.0 17.1 22.5
40–49 1,231,801 20.2 10.0 9.1 16.9 19.2 24.6
50–59 3,335,810 21.4 9.5 6.9 13.7 20.1 28.4
60 or older 3,466,439 15.6 9.5 7.9 14.3 21.4 31.3
Race a
Singly or in combination
White 6,671,128 17.4 9.0 7.7 14.4 20.8 30.7
Black 1,809,034 26.6 10.2 7.7 15.1 19.1 21.2
American Indian or Alaska Native 301,062 23.7 13.0 10.3 16.9 16.4 19.8
Asian 172,373 20.2 13.1 (X) (X) 12.6 37.6
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 44,812 39.1 (X) (X) (X) (X) (X)
Two or more races 211,918 21.8 7.2 11.5 15.4 17.4 26.8
Ethnicity
Hispanic 989,627 24.8 8.1 8.0 16.6 18.3 24.2
Non-Hispanic 7,777,232 19.0 9.6 7.6 14.2 20.5 29.1
Marital status
Married 3,720,738 7.9 4.9 4.8 12.6 25.1 44.8
Widowed 567,347 23.9 9.1 9.8 21.3 16.7 19.3
Divorced or separated 2,480,653 27.3 14.7 10.5 15.2 17.1 15.2
Never married 1,998,121 30.8 11.6 8.9 15.3 16.0 17.4
Educational attainment b
Less than high school diploma 1,431,450 32.8 12.0 9.3 16.2 15.1 14.7
High school diploma or equivalent 3,663,476 19.9 10.2 7.7 14.9 21.9 25.4
Some college 2,614,149 16.0 8.3 7.9 14.5 21.2 32.1
Bachelor's or higher degree 1,024,189 10.1 6.1 4.9 10.1 19.2 49.7
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: "Disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries" includes disabled workers, disabled widow(er)s, and disabled adult children but excludes nondisabled individuals receiving DI benefits as dependents of disabled workers.
Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
(X) = suppressed to avoid disclosing information about particular individuals.
a. Individuals may be counted in more than one category.
b. Includes only individuals aged 25 or older to capture the distribution of those most likely to have completed their educational progress.
Bar chart with tabular version below.
Show as table
Table equivalent for Chart 2. Disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries with family incomes at selected percentages of the poverty threshold, by educational attainment, 2016
Educational attainment Percent with family income less than 100% of the poverty threshold Percent with family income 300% or more of the poverty threshold
Less than high school diploma 31.7 14.9
High school diploma or equivalent 20.6 24.9
Some college 16.2 31.9
Bachelor's or higher degree 10.0 50.1
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: “Disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries” includes disabled workers, disabled widow(er)s, and disabled adult children but excludes nondisabled individuals receiving DI benefits as dependents of disabled workers.
Includes only individuals aged 25 or older to capture the distribution of those most likely to have completed their educational progress.

SSI Recipients

SSI provides monthly payments to individuals with low income and few assets who have a disability or are aged.12 To qualify for SSI payments, an individual cannot have assets exceeding $2,000, and a couple cannot have assets exceeding $3,000 (SSA 2021c). Unlike DI, the SSI program does not require recipients to have past work to qualify for payments.

In this note, the tables show results for three age groups: children (younger than 18), working-age adults (18–64), and the aged (65 or older). The maximum monthly SSI federal payment amount, called the federal benefit rate, can be reduced for individuals with countable earnings and unearned income. In 2016, the federal benefit rate was $733 per month for an individual and $1,100 per month for a couple if both qualified for SSI payments. Some states provide supplementation payments to SSI recipients in addition to federal payments.

Table 6 shows that 30.7 percent of SSI recipients identify as Black, 6.4 percent identify as Asian, 3.8 percent identify as American Indian or Alaska Native, 0.3 percent identify as Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and 2.9 percent identify as multiracial. More than one in five (21.3 percent) SSI recipients identify as Hispanic. Recipients aged 65 or older are disproportionately more likely to identify as Asian or Hispanic. The majority of SSI recipients aged 18–64 have never married (55.6 percent), while 25.1 percent are divorced or separated, 14.6 percent are married, and 4.8 percent are widowed. Slightly more than 2 percent of adult SSI recipients are veterans.

Table 6. Number and percentage distribution of SSI recipients, by age group and selected demographic characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Number Percent
Total Under 18 18–64 65 or older Total Under 18 18–64 65 or older
All recipients 8,198,768 1,290,428 4,879,897 2,028,443 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Sex
Male 3,836,575 854,689 2,283,409 698,477 46.8 66.2 46.8 34.4
Female 4,362,193 435,740 2,596,488 1,329,966 53.2 33.8 53.2 65.6
Race a
Singly or in combination
White 5,071,342 785,480 3,098,655 1,187,207 61.9 60.9 63.5 58.5
Black 2,518,172 475,032 1,600,845 442,296 30.7 36.8 32.8 21.8
American Indian or Alaska Native 310,103 68,648 195,009 46,446 3.8 5.3 4.0 2.3
Asian 527,169 36,763 109,069 381,337 6.4 2.9 2.2 18.8
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 30,398 (X) (X) (X) 0.3 (X) (X) (X)
Two or more races 241,381 69,429 137,255 34,697 2.9 5.4 2.8 1.7
Ethnicity
Hispanic 1,741,955 337,453 797,623 606,878 21.3 26.2 16.4 29.9
Non-Hispanic 6,456,813 952,975 4,082,273 1,421,564 78.7 73.8 83.6 70.1
Marital status
Married 1,229,025 (X) 710,950 (X) 15.0 (X) 14.6 (X)
Widowed 971,269 (X) 232,291 (X) 11.8 (X) 4.8 (X)
Divorced or separated 1,681,392 (X) 1,224,503 (X) 20.5 (X) 25.1 (X)
Never married 4,317,082 1,286,091 2,712,152 318,839 52.7 99.7 55.6 15.7
Educational attainment b
Less than high school diploma 2,388,932 . . . 1,349,660 1,039,272 38.4 . . . 32.2 51.2
High school diploma or equivalent 2,374,225 . . . 1,858,230 515,995 38.1 . . . 44.3 25.4
Some college 977,226 . . . 767,623 209,603 15.7 . . . 18.3 10.3
Bachelor's or higher degree 485,908 . . . 222,336 263,573 7.8 . . . 5.3 13.0
Veteran status
Veteran 158,805 . . . 115,259 43,545 2.3 . . . 2.4 2.1
Nonveteran 6,749,535 . . . 4,764,637 1,984,898 97.7 . . . 97.6 97.9
Health insurance a
Medicaid 7,668,262 1,241,556 4,569,458 1,857,248 93.5 96.2 93.6 91.6
Medicare 3,322,902 20,576 1,308,806 1,993,521 40.5 1.6 26.8 98.3
Medicaid and Medicare only 6,581,025 938,208 3,849,774 1,793,044 80.3 72.7 78.9 88.4
Private 1,478,317 327,047 937,776 213,493 18.0 25.3 19.2 10.5
Source of family income a
Social Security c 3,636,333 234,735 2,150,251 1,251,348 44.4 18.2 44.1 61.7
Public assistance other than SSI d 1,059,480 248,313 646,248 164,919 12.9 19.2 13.2 8.1
Earnings 3,738,438 978,545 2,192,374 567,519 45.6 75.8 44.9 28.0
Property income 2,102,436 336,016 1,192,855 573,566 25.6 26.0 24.4 28.3
Retirement income 387,734 17,842 241,091 128,801 4.7 1.4 4.9 6.4
Veterans' benefits 99,272 (X) 63,103 (X) 1.2 (X) 1.3 (X)
Other income e 1,434,916 315,586 972,968 146,362 17.5 24.5 19.9 7.2
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
(X) = suppressed to avoid disclosing information about particular individuals; . . . = not applicable.
a. Individuals may be counted in more than one category.
b. Includes only individuals aged 25 or older to capture the distribution of those most likely to have completed their educational progress. The "18–64" age group therefore reflects ages 25 to 64 for the educational attainment categories.
c. Includes disability, old-age, and survivor benefits.
d. Includes TANF, WIC benefits, SNAP food assistance, public housing, rent subsidies, energy assistance, state and local general financial assistance, and other welfare.
e. Includes unemployment benefits; worker's compensation; disability benefits other than DI, SSI, or veterans' benefits; child support; alimony; and business or farm income.

Most SSI recipients (93.5 percent) report having Medicaid insurance, while 40.5 percent report having Medicare and 18.0 percent report having private insurance. The most common sources of family income are earnings (45.6 percent of SSI recipients have some family earnings income), Social Security (44.4 percent), and property income (25.6 percent). Retirement income (4.7 percent) and veterans' benefits (1.2 percent) are less common.

Chart 3 summarizes educational attainment patterns. In 2016, 51.2 percent of aged SSI recipients did not have a high school diploma, compared with 32.2 percent of recipients aged 25–64.

Bar chart with tabular version below.
Show as table
Table equivalent for Chart 3. SSI recipients, by educational attainment and age group, 2016
Age group Percent with less than high school diploma Percent with high school diploma/equivalent or more
25–64 32.2 67.9
65 or older 51.2 48.8
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.

Table 7 shows that seven in ten SSI recipients have family income below $30,000. SSI recipients aged 65 or older are more likely to have family income below this level (79.9 percent) than are recipients aged 18–64 (69.2 percent) or recipients younger than 18 (53.8 percent).13 About one-sixth of SSI recipients live in public housing (16.1 percent). More than half of SSI recipients (51.7 percent) live in households receiving food assistance through SNAP, 16.8 percent live in households receiving energy assistance, and 23.3 percent receive housing assistance. Nearly two-thirds of SSI recipients (65.8 percent) live with another family member, although most adult SSI recipients (75.8 percent of those aged 18–64 and 88.6 percent of those aged 65 or older) do not live with a family member younger than 18, and very few (3.4 percent and 0.8 percent, respectively) live with a child who also receives SSI.

Table 7. Number and percentage distribution of SSI recipients, by age group and household and family characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Number Percent
Total Under 18 18–64 65 or older Total Under 18 18–64 65 or older
All recipients 8,198,768 1,290,428 4,879,897 2,028,443 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Household type a
Family
Married couple 1,962,512 . . . 1,331,992 630,520 28.4 . . . 27.3 31.1
Male householder 536,844 . . . 431,570 105,273 7.8 . . . 8.8 5.2
Female householder 1,643,889 . . . 1,329,389 314,500 23.8 . . . 27.2 15.5
Nonfamily or group quarters 2,765,094 . . . 1,786,945 978,150 40.0 . . . 36.6 48.2
Homeownership status b
Owned 3,120,128 407,577 1,907,230 805,322 38.1 31.6 39.1 39.7
Not owned
Public housing 1,316,118 126,046 752,691 437,380 16.1 9.8 15.4 21.6
Other 3,762,522 756,805 2,219,976 785,741 45.9 58.7 45.5 38.7
Household receipt of assistance c
Energy 1,377,846 198,964 813,153 365,730 16.8 15.4 16.7 18.0
Housing 1,905,939 176,447 1,096,432 633,060 23.3 13.7 22.5 31.2
Food (SNAP) 4,236,692 657,849 2,570,866 1,007,977 51.7 51.0 52.7 49.7
Household size
1 2,061,547 . . . 1,206,852 854,695 25.1 . . . 24.7 42.1
2 1,922,316 103,435 1,231,310 587,571 23.5 8.0 25.2 29.0
3–4 2,718,486 676,165 1,712,435 329,887 33.2 52.4 35.1 16.3
5 or more 1,496,419 510,829 729,300 256,290 18.3 39.6 14.9 12.6
Family size
1 2,801,485 36,390 1,786,945 978,150 34.2 2.8 36.6 48.2
2 1,921,717 210,634 1,083,358 627,725 23.4 16.3 22.2 31.0
3–4 2,368,600 643,901 1,481,997 242,703 28.9 49.9 30.4 12.0
5 or more 1,106,966 399,503 527,597 179,865 13.5 31.0 10.8 8.9
Children in family
None 5,497,873 . . . 3,700,757 1,797,116 67.1 . . . 75.8 88.6
1 1,107,972 376,513 625,841 105,618 13.5 29.2 12.8 5.2
2 824,331 422,043 309,179 93,109 10.1 32.7 6.3 4.6
3 448,259 277,874 (X) (X) 5.5 21.5 (X) (X)
4 or more 320,332 213,998 (X) (X) 3.9 16.7 (X) (X)
Child SSI recipients in household
None 6,726,132 . . . 4,713,902 2,012,229 82.0 . . . 96.6 99.2
1 or more 1,472,636 1,290,428 165,994 16,214 18.0 100.0 3.4 0.8
Adult SSI recipients in household
None 1,067,152 1,067,152 . . . . . . 13.0 82.7 . . . . . .
1 5,898,459 199,900 4,069,453 1,629,106 71.9 15.5 83.4 80.3
2 or more 1,233,157 23,376 810,444 399,337 15.0 1.8 16.6 19.7
Total annual family income ($)
Less than 7,500 392,804 83,443 235,836 73,525 4.8 6.5 4.8 3.6
7,500–14,999 3,290,311 156,227 2,030,668 1,103,416 40.1 12.1 41.6 54.4
15,000–22,499 1,252,907 209,368 738,569 304,970 15.3 16.2 15.1 15.0
22,500–29,999 759,863 245,402 374,112 140,349 9.3 19.0 7.7 6.9
30,000–44,999 954,820 324,454 516,864 113,502 11.7 25.1 10.6 5.6
45,000–59,999 586,899 129,604 375,963 81,332 7.2 10.0 7.7 4.0
60,000 or more 961,163 141,929 607,885 211,349 11.7 11.0 12.5 10.4
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
(X) = suppressed to avoid disclosing information about particular individuals; . . . = not applicable.
a. Adult recipients only.
b. Refers to ownership by any member of the household, not necessarily the recipient.
c. Individuals may be counted in more than one category.

Table 8 shows that 29.3 percent of adult SSI recipients receive 75 percent or more of their family income from SSI payments. Recipients aged 18–64 are slightly more likely to receive three-quarters or more of their family income from SSI than are recipients aged 65 or older—30.5 percent and 26.4 percent, respectively. Recipients who are divorced or separated, and those who live alone or with nonrelatives only, are more likely than recipients with another marital status or living arrangement to rely on SSI for at least half of their family income.

Table 8. Percentage distribution of SSI adult recipients, by share of family income derived from SSI payments and selected demographic characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Number Percent Share of family income derived from SSI payments
Total Less than 50% 50–74% 75–89% 90–100%
All recipients 6,908,340 100.0 100.0 59.9 10.9 3.6 25.7
Sex
Men 2,981,886 43.2 100.0 62.5 9.5 2.8 25.2
Women 3,926,454 56.8 100.0 57.9 11.9 4.1 26.1
Age
18–64 4,879,897 70.6 100.0 58.7 10.8 4.0 26.5
65 or older 2,028,443 29.4 100.0 62.6 11.0 2.5 23.9
Race a
Singly or in combination
White 4,285,862 62.0 100.0 59.4 10.8 3.5 26.3
Black 2,043,141 29.6 100.0 60.5 12.0 3.3 24.2
American Indian or Alaska Native 241,455 3.5 100.0 56.3 9.2 6.4 28.2
Asian 490,406 7.1 100.0 61.9 9.4 3.9 24.8
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander (X) (X) 100.0 (X) (X) (X) (X)
Two or more races 171,952 2.5 100.0 59.5 (X) (X) 20.4
Ethnicity
Hispanic 1,404,502 20.3 100.0 63.2 10.4 4.9 21.5
Non-Hispanic 5,503,838 79.7 100.0 59.0 11.0 3.2 26.8
Marital status
Married (X) (X) 100.0 64.5 9.1 2.9 23.5
Widowed (X) (X) 100.0 61.1 11.6 2.6 24.8
Divorced or separated (X) (X) 100.0 49.1 13.6 4.6 32.7
Never married 3,030,991 43.9 100.0 63.6 9.8 3.6 23.0
Educational attainment b
Less than high school diploma 2,388,932 38.4 100.0 56.6 11.6 4.4 27.4
High school diploma or equivalent 2,374,225 38.1 100.0 59.1 10.8 3.3 26.7
Some college 977,226 15.7 100.0 60.8 9.6 3.1 26.6
Bachelor's or higher degree 485,908 7.8 100.0 55.4 8.0 4.2 32.4
Living arrangement
Lives alone 2,061,547 29.8 100.0 39.8 11.5 4.0 44.6
Lives with relatives 4,143,245 60.0 100.0 73.5 10.5 3.2 12.8
Lives only with nonrelatives 703,547 10.2 100.0 38.4 11.2 4.0 46.4
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
(X) = suppressed to avoid disclosing information about particular individuals.
a. Individuals may be counted in more than one category.
b. Includes only individuals aged 25 or older to capture the distribution of those most likely to have completed their educational progress.

Table 9 shows that the family income of all recipients consists primarily of SSI payments (44.4 percent), earnings (26.6 percent), and Social Security benefits (21.3 percent). SSI payments constitute particularly large percentages of family income for divorced or separated recipients (54.4 percent) and for those who live alone (63.5 percent) or with nonrelatives only (66.0 percent). Earnings constitute a higher share of family income for the families of child SSI recipients (46.4 percent) than for those of recipients aged 18–64 (23.9 percent). Most family income for SSI recipients aged 65 or older includes a combination of Social Security benefits (32.7 percent) and SSI payments (44.4 percent), although earnings account for another 16.9 percent of income.

Table 9. Percentage distribution of family income of SSI recipients, by income source and selected demographic characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Total Social Security a Public assistance Earnings Retirement income Property income Veterans' benefits Other income c
SSI Other b
All recipients 100.0 21.3 44.4 2.5 26.6 1.5 0.6 0.4 2.7
Sex
Male 100.0 19.8 43.2 1.9 29.7 1.5 1.0 0.5 2.6
Female 100.0 22.8 47.1 3.1 22.2 1.5 0.6 0.3 2.9
Age
Under 18 100.0 6.7 38.9 3.1 46.4 0.3 0.5 0.3 3.8
18–64 100.0 20.6 47.3 2.8 23.9 1.6 0.8 0.4 3.1
65 or older 100.0 32.7 44.4 1.6 16.9 2.0 1.0 0.4 1.4
Race
Singly or in combination
White 100.0 22.0 45.4 2.4 24.8 1.7 0.8 0.5 2.6
Black 100.0 21.6 44.7 2.8 26.2 0.9 0.8 0.2 3.3
American Indian or Alaska Native 100.0 18.4 49.6 1.8 23.1 1.6 0.3 0.8 4.5
Asian 100.0 12.3 42.7 2.6 36.9 2.5 1.5 0.1 1.4
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 100.0 23.5 39.0 1.2 33.4 0.7 0.1 2.0 0.0
Two or more races 100.0 15.1 41.6 2.7 35.0 1.3 0.3 0.3 3.6
Ethnicity
Hispanic 100.0 21.3 44.1 2.6 27.9 1.1 0.7 0.4 2.3
Non-Hispanic 100.0 21.4 45.6 2.5 25.1 1.6 0.8 0.4 2.9
Marital status
Married 100.0 25.0 44.4 2.1 24.7 1.8 0.9 0.3 1.4
Widowed 100.0 27.1 45.3 2.6 21.0 1.1 0.5 0.7 2.4
Divorced or separated 100.0 26.8 54.4 2.6 11.3 1.2 0.7 0.3 3.0
Never married 100.0 16.9 41.9 2.6 32.6 1.6 0.9 0.4 3.2
Educational attainment d
Less than high school diploma 100.0 25.1 49.5 2.3 18.1 1.6 0.6 0.5 2.5
High school diploma or equivalent 100.0 25.6 47.1 1.6 20.5 1.6 0.7 0.3 2.8
Some college 100.0 28.1 46.1 4.1 17.8 1.2 1.4 0.5 2.3
Bachelor's or higher degree 100.0 21.8 50.1 1.8 17.7 4.4 1.3 0.4 2.5
Living arrangement
Lives alone 100.0 28.1 63.5 1.8 2.4 1.3 0.2 0.2 2.5
Lives with relatives 100.0 18.6 35.5 3.0 37.4 1.6 1.1 0.5 2.8
Lives only with nonrelatives 100.0 22.9 66.0 1.3 4.8 1.0 0.5 0.1 3.3
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTE: Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
a. Includes disability, old-age, and survivor benefits.
b. Excludes amounts received in the form of noncash benefits or assistance.
c. Includes unemployment benefits; worker's compensation; disability benefits other than DI, SSI, or veterans' benefits; child support; alimony; and business or farm income.
d. Includes only individuals aged 25 or older to capture the distribution of those most likely to have completed their educational progress.

Most SSI recipients aged 65 or older (60.1 percent) and aged 18–64 (51.7 percent) have family income below the poverty level, as do a substantial minority of recipients younger than 18 (37.4 percent; Table 10). Female recipients (55.2 percent) and recipients who are widowed (59.8 percent) or divorced or separated (70.5 percent) are also relatively likely to have family income below the poverty level. In a reversal of previous trends, recipients with at least some college are more likely to have family income below the poverty level than are recipients who have not attended college.

Table 10. Percentage distribution of SSI recipients, by poverty status and selected demographic characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Total Family income relative to poverty threshold
Less than 100% 100–124% 125–149% 150–199% 200–299% 300% or more
All recipients 8,198,768 51.6 10.6 8.4 10.0 9.7 9.8
Sex
Male 3,836,575 47.4 11.4 8.4 11.1 10.5 11.2
Female 4,362,193 55.2 9.9 8.4 9.0 9.0 8.5
Age
Under 18 1,290,428 37.4 16.2 14.1 17.8 10.1 4.4
18–64 4,879,897 51.7 9.7 7.1 9.7 10.6 11.2
65 or older 2,028,443 60.1 9.3 8.0 5.6 7.3 9.7
Race a
Singly or in combination
White 5,071,342 52.0 10.3 8.0 10.2 10.1 9.4
Black 2,518,172 51.2 11.5 9.3 10.7 8.8 8.5
American Indian or Alaska Native 310,103 51.0 8.9 10.6 11.5 8.1 9.9
Asian 527,169 43.1 11.1 6.9 7.5 10.8 20.6
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 30,398 69.6 (X) (X) (X) (X) (X)
Two or more races 241,381 40.1 10.2 8.1 18.0 11.2 12.4
Ethnicity
Hispanic 1,741,955 49.3 11.2 10.2 10.6 10.8 7.9
Non-Hispanic 6,456,813 52.2 10.5 7.9 9.8 9.4 10.3
Marital status
Married 1,229,025 47.0 16.1 10.9 9.4 10.3 6.4
Widowed 971,269 59.8 7.6 7.3 5.4 8.0 12.0
Divorced or separated 1,681,392 70.5 8.0 4.8 6.6 5.0 5.3
Never married 4,317,082 43.7 10.8 9.4 12.5 11.7 12.0
Educational attainment b
Less than high school diploma 2,388,932 55.6 10.5 9.7 8.0 7.6 8.7
High school diploma or equivalent 2,374,225 55.1 9.9 6.6 8.0 10.9 9.5
Some college 977,226 63.3 7.8 5.0 8.9 7.1 8.0
Bachelor's or higher degree 485,908 61.9 6.4 4.8 5.5 8.5 12.9
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: Rounded components of percentage distributions do not necessarily sum to 100.0.
(X) = suppressed to avoid disclosing information about particular individuals.
a. Individuals may be counted in more than one category.
b. Includes only individuals aged 25 or older to capture the distribution of those most likely to have completed their educational progress.

Aged Social Security Beneficiaries

OASI provides monthly benefits to individuals aged 62 or older with a history of Social Security–covered work, as well as to dependent and surviving spouses, children, and parents of covered workers. The estimates presented here are for individuals aged 62 or older who receive benefits either based on their own earnings record or as the parent or spouse of a covered worker; and individuals aged 60 or older who receive benefits as the widow(er) of a covered worker.14

Most aged Social Security beneficiaries (93.5 percent) report Medicare coverage either alone or in combination with other health insurance (Chart 4). Very few beneficiaries report being uninsured (0.8 percent), 52.6 percent report private coverage alone or in combination with other coverage, and 7.2 percent report Medicaid alone or in combination with other coverage. Coverage from Medicare alone is reported by 40.2 percent of aged Social Security beneficiaries (Table 11). Only 1.2 percent of respondents report both Medicaid and private health insurance coverage.

Bar chart with tabular version below.
Show as table
Table equivalent for Chart 4. Aged Social Security (OASI) beneficiaries, by type of health insurance coverage, 2016
Type of insurance Percent
Medicaid 7.2
Medicare 93.5
Private 52.6
None 0.8
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: “Aged Social Security (OASI) beneficiaries” includes workers, spouses, and parents aged 62 or older; and widow(er)s aged 60 or older.
Individuals may have more than one type of coverage.
Table 11. Number and percentage distribution of aged Social Security (OASI) beneficiaries, by selected demographic characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Number Percent
All beneficiaries 46,173,819 100.0
Sex
Men 20,323,588 44.0
Women 25,850,230 56.0
Race a
Singly or in combination
White 39,772,941 86.1
Black 4,404,465 9.5
American Indian or Alaska Native 649,496 1.4
Asian 1,676,470 3.6
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 119,310 0.3
Two or more races 417,050 0.9
Ethnicity
Hispanic 3,704,086 8.0
Non-Hispanic 42,469,733 92.0
Marital status
Married 26,822,433 58.1
Widowed 11,007,987 23.8
Divorced or separated 6,209,901 13.5
Never married 2,133,498 4.6
Educational attainment
Less than high school diploma 6,428,838 13.9
High school diploma or equivalent 15,403,446 33.4
Some college 11,664,713 25.3
Bachelor's or higher degree 12,676,822 27.5
Veteran status
Veteran 9,151,603 19.8
Nonveteran 37,022,215 80.2
Health insurance
Medicaid only 330,171 0.7
Medicare only 18,547,840 40.2
Private only 2,066,355 4.5
Medicaid and Medicare 2,477,758 5.4
Medicaid and private 86,583 0.2
Medicare and private 21,709,591 47.0
Medicaid, Medicare, and private 443,318 1.0
Military servicemember coverage 147,200 0.3
None 365,002 0.8
Source of family income a
Public assistance
SSI 1,990,636 4.3
Other public assistance b 965,392 2.1
Earnings 18,924,089 41.0
Property income 32,032,525 69.4
Retirement income 21,677,001 47.0
Veterans' benefits 2,999,485 6.5
Other income c 15,002,685 32.5
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: "Aged Social Security (OASI) beneficiaries" includes workers, spouses, and parents aged 62 or older; and widow(er)s aged 60 or older.
Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
a. Individuals may be counted in more than one category.
b. Includes TANF, WIC benefits, SNAP food assistance, public housing, rent subsidies, energy assistance, state and local general financial assistance, and other welfare.
c. Includes unemployment benefits; worker's compensation; disability benefits other than DI, SSI, or veterans' benefits; child support; alimony; and business or farm income.

Most aged Social Security beneficiaries live in a two-person household (55.4 percent, Table 12), followed by single-person households (29.3 percent). Homeownership for aged beneficiaries is high, with 82.4 percent residing in owned homes. In addition, the prevalence of household assistance is generally low, with the most common form of assistance being SNAP benefits, reported by 7.2 percent of beneficiaries.

Table 12. Number and percentage distribution of aged Social Security (OASI) beneficiaries, by household and family characteristics, 2016
Characteristic Number Percent
All beneficiaries 46,173,819 100.0
Household type
Family
Married couple 26,998,840 58.5
Male householder 1,161,985 2.5
Female householder 3,081,597 6.7
Nonfamily or group quarters 14,931,396 32.3
Homeownership status a
Owned 38,055,970 82.4
Not owned
Public housing 1,198,942 2.6
Other 6,918,906 15.0
Household receipt of assistance b
Energy 1,476,499 3.2
Housing 1,670,199 3.6
Food (SNAP) 3,344,119 7.2
Household size
1 13,530,218 29.3
2 25,574,572 55.4
3–4 5,526,615 12.0
5 or more 1,542,413 3.3
Family size
1 14,931,396 32.3
2 25,279,581 54.8
3–4 4,814,701 10.4
5 or more 1,148,141 2.5
Social Security c beneficiaries in household
1 21,512,732 46.6
2 23,489,675 50.9
3 or more 1,171,412 2.5
SOURCE: Social Security administrative records matched to 2017 CPS ASEC.
NOTES: "Aged Social Security (OASI) beneficiaries" includes workers, spouses, and parents aged 62 or older; and widow(er)s aged 60 or older.
Totals do not necessarily equal the sum of rounded components.
a. Refers to ownership by any member of the household, not necessarily the beneficiary.
b. Individuals may be counted in more than one category.
c. Includes disability, old-age, and survivor benefits.

Conclusion

This note updates Bailey and Hemmeter (2015), Bailey and Hemmeter (2014), and DeCesaro and Hemmeter (2008). However, this update differs from earlier versions in a few critical ways. The estimates presented here are based on data from the CPS ASEC, whereas prior versions used the SIPP. Additionally, this note uses survey weights adjusted for the likelihood that an individual survey respondent has matching administrative data in SSA records, which differ slightly from the weights used in prior versions. This note also expands the coverage of previous versions by including statistics on aged Social Security (OASI) beneficiaries in addition to disabled Social Security (DI) beneficiaries and SSI recipients. Although the CPS-based statistics presented here are in some cases not directly comparable to the SIPP-based estimates in prior versions, they provide similar information. Moreover, this update provides a broader context for understanding beneficiary populations by including estimates for OASI beneficiaries.

Appendix A: Imputing State-Administered SSI Supplementation Payments

We use administrative data from the SSR to identify SSI recipients and to determine whether a recipient's spouse was also an SSI recipient in a given month. We then use data from the CPS ASEC to identify the characteristics relevant to whether an SSI recipient qualifies for a state-administered supplementation payment: whether the recipient has a spouse who also receives SSI in that month, and the recipient's dependent and householder statuses. Based on these variables and documentation from SSA and state agencies, we identify recipients who are likely to be eligible for a state-administered supplementation payment and impute a proxy monthly payment amount. When state supplementation applies to couples in which both spouses receive SSI, we impute half the supplementation payment amount to each spouse.

Table A-1 shows the criteria under which SSI recipients are likely to be eligible for state-administered supplementation payments and the proxy monthly supplementation amount. In some states, SSI supplementation payments are available only to individuals residing in institutional settings. Because the CPS ASEC sample does not include these populations, we omit those states from our proxy imputations.15 In some other states, the CPS ASEC does not include all the variables needed to determine whether an individual qualifies for a supplementation payment; we omit those states from our imputations as well.16 A further limitation of this imputation approach is that although data from the CPS ASEC provide an individual's marital status and living arrangement as of March 2017, our calculations assume that this information also applied in each month of 2016.

Table A-1. Imputed monthly state-administered SSI supplementation payment amount for proxy SSI recipient groups, by selected state and eligibility criterion (in dollars)
State and living arrangement Spouse also receives SSI No spousal SSI recipient
Colorado
SSI recipient lives independently or in another person's household 193.50 25.00
Connecticut
No living-arrangement restrictions 137.00 168.00
Idaho
SSI recipient lives independently or in another person's household 10.00 53.00
Maine
SSI recipient ls householder 7.50 10.00
SSI recipient lives in another person's household 6.00 8.00
Nebraska
SSI recipient lives independently . . . 5.00
Oklahoma
SSI recipient lives independently 21.00 21.00
SOURCES: SSA (2011) and Colorado Department of Human Services (2022).
NOTE: . . . = not applicable.

Notes

1 DI beneficiaries who are eligible as disabled adult children are aged 18 or older with no upper limit. For disabled workers and disabled widow(er)s, DI benefits automatically convert to OASI benefits when the beneficiary reaches full retirement age (FRA), which varies according to the beneficiary's year of birth. To have received DI benefits in 2016, a disabled worker or a disabled widow(er) beneficiary would have a birth year of 1950 or later and, therefore, an FRA of no younger than 66.

2 That figure ($7,400) represents the 99th percentile for all family income attributable to OASDI benefits in a month. The maximum monthly OASDI benefit an individual could receive in 2016 was $3,576.10 (SSA 2021a, Table 2.A28.2).

3 Because survey respondents often underreport their SSI payments, the SSR administrative data are likely to indicate a lower percentage of SSI recipients with family income below the poverty level than are reported in the CPS ASEC.

4 SSA administers the state supplementation payments for California, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Hawaii, Iowa, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont.

5 CPS respondents report whether they receive noncash or “near cash” benefits such as SNAP benefits and energy and housing assistance but not the amounts received.

6 For additional information about Section 1634 and the states to which this policy applies, see https://secure.ssa.gov/poms.nsf/lnx/0501715020.

7 Including both self-reported Medicare coverage and administratively recorded Medicare Part B coverage may overstate the true extent of Medicare coverage. However, any overestimation would be limited because the Medicare Part B benefits of some Social Security beneficiaries (such as Specified Low-Income Medicare Beneficiaries and Qualified Medicare Beneficiaries) are not recorded in the linked PHUS and CPS records.

8 The levels of household and family income tend to be similar enough that we report only family income.

9 Nondisabled dependents of disabled workers may also receive auxiliary DI benefits, but they are excluded from this analysis. Therefore, these tables (and the accompanying discussion) cover only individuals who are entitled to DI benefits based on their own disability. In 2016, nondisabled dependents accounted for 14.2 percent of DI beneficiaries (SSA 2017, Table 1).

10 Property income includes income from rents, dividends, yields, and interest.

11 Research has linked long-standing structural inequities such as wage disparity and discrimination in housing and employment to disproportionately higher poverty rates for Black Americans (Emmons and Ricketts 2017).

12 SSI recipients who are both disabled and aged 65 or older are counted in the aged category.

13 Some but not all parental income is counted, or “deemed,” toward the assets and income of child SSI recipients (SSA 2021b).

14 For information on additional types of Social Security benefits, see SSA (2021a, 13–15).

15 This applies to Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia.

16 This applies to Alaska, Illinois, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.

References

Bailey, Michelle Stegman, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. 2014. “Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized DI and SSI Program Participants, 2010 Update.” Research and Statistics Note No. 2014-02. Washington, DC: SSA. https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2014-02.html.

———. 2015. “Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized DI and SSI Program Participants, 2013 Update.” Research and Statistics Note No. 2015-02. Washington, DC: SSA. https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2015-02.html.

Bee, C. Adam, and Joshua W. Mitchell. 2017. “Do Older Americans Have More Income Than We Think?” SEHSD Working Paper No. 2017-39. Washington, DC: Census Bureau, Social, Economic, and Housing Statistics Division.

Census Bureau. 2022. “Poverty Thresholds.” https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-poverty-thresholds.html.

Colorado Department of Human Services. 2022. “Adult Financial Programs.” https://cdhs.colorado.gov/benefits-assistance/cash-assistance/adult-financial-programs.

DeCesaro, Anne, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. 2008. “Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized DI and SSI Program Participants.” Research and Statistics Note No. 2008-02. Washington, DC: SSA. https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/rsnotes/rsn2008-02.html.

Dushi, Irena, and Brad Trenkamp. 2021. “Improving the Measurement of Retirement Income of the Aged Population.” ORES Working Paper No. 116. Washington, DC: SSA. https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/workingpapers/wp116.html.

Emmons, William R., and Lowell R. Ricketts. 2017. “College Is Not Enough: Higher Education Does Not Eliminate Racial and Ethnic Wealth Gaps.” Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review 99(1): 7–39.

[SSA] Social Security Administration. 2011. State Assistance Programs for SSI Recipients, January 2011. SSA Publication No. 13-11975. Washington, DC: SSA. https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/progdesc/ssi_st_asst/2011/index.html.

———. 2017. Annual Statistical Report on the Social Security Disability Insurance Program, 2016. SSA Publication No. 13-11826. Washington, DC: SSA. https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/di_asr/2016/index.html.

———. 2021a. Annual Statistical Supplement to the Social Security Bulletin, 2021. SSA Publication No. 13-11700. Washington, DC: SSA. https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/supplement/2021/index.html.

———. 2021b. “Spotlight on Deeming and Parental Income and Resources.” https://www.ssa.gov/ssi/spotlights/spot-deeming.htm.

———. 2021c. “Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Eligibility Requirements.” https://www.ssa.gov/ssi/text-eligibility-ussi.htm.